Society And Culture In Ancient Tamizhagam The Sangam Age

Class 6 | Social Science — History | Unit 1

Class 6 Unit 1 History

Unit 1 Society and Culture in Ancient Tamilagam: The Sangam Age

Learning Objectives

• To understand that Sangam Tamil literature is the main source for the study of ancient Tamil society
• To know the rule of Muvendars (Three Great Kings) the Chera, Chola and the Pandya kings and their contemporary minor chieftains
• To gain an understanding of the administrative system and the socio-economic conditions of Tamilagam
• To learn about the Kalabhra period

The Sangam Age

The word 'Sangam' refers to the association of poets who flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings at Madurai. The poems composed by these poets are collectively known as Sangam literature. The period in which these poems were composed is called the Sangam Age.

Do You Know?

ArumugaNavalar (born in Jaffna), U.V.Swaminatha Iyer and Damodharam Pillai (born inJaffna) strove hard and spent many years in retrieving and publishing the Tamil classics and the ancient Tamil texts, which were originally present as palm leaf manuscripts.

Sources

Inscriptions

Hathigumpha Inscription of King Karavela of Kalinga, Pugalur (near Karur) Inscription, Ashokan Edicts 2 and 8, and inscriptions found at Mangulam, Alagarmalai and Keelavalavu (all near Madurai)

Copper Plates

Velvikudi and Chinnamanur copper plates

Coins

Issued by the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas and the chieftains of Sangam Age as well as the Roman coins

Megalithic Monuments

Burials and Hero stones

Excavated Materials

From Adichanallur, Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Puhar, Korkai, Alagankulam, Uraiyur

Literary Sources

Tholkappiyam, Ettuthogai (eight anthologies), Pathupattu (ten idylls), Pathinen Keel kanakku (a collection of eighteen poetic works), Pattinapalai and Maduraikanji. Epics Silapathikaram and Manimegalai

Foreign Notices

The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Pliny's Natural History, Ptolemy's Geography, Megasthenes's Indica, Rajavali, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa

Do You Know?

Tolkappiyam is a work on Tamil grammar. It represents the quality of Tamil language and the culture of Tamil people of the Sangam Age.

Time Span: third century BCE (Before Common Era) to third century CE (Common Era)
Tamizhagam: Vengadam (Tirupathi hill) in the north to Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin) in the south, Bounded by sea on the east and the west.
Age: Iron Age
Culture: Megalithic
Polity: Monarchy
Dynasties ruled: The Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas

Do You Know?

George L. Hart, Professor of Tamil language at the University of California, has said that Tamil is as old as Latin. The language arose as an entirely independent tradition with no influence of other languages.

Muvendars (Three Great Kings)

Cheras

Three dynasties, namely the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas ruled the territories of Tamilagam during the Sangam Age. The Tamil word 'Vendar' was used to refer to three dynasties, namely the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. The Cheras ruled over the central and north Travancore, Cochin, south Malabar and Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. The Pathitrupathu (a collection of ten decades of verses) provides information about the Chera kings. It is known that the Chera king Senguttuvan went on a military expedition to North India. He brought stones from the Himalayas to make the idol of Kannagi, an epic character from Silapathikaram. He introduced the pattini cult. Cheran Senguttuvan's younger brother was Ilango Adigal. He was the author of Silappathikaram. Another Chera king, Cheral Irumporai, issued coins in his name. Some Chera coins bear their emblem of bow and arrow.

Prominent Chera Rulers

• Udayan Cheralathan
• Imayavaramban Netun Cheralathan
• Cheran Senguttuvan
• Cheral Irumporai

Cholas

The Chola kingdom of Sangam period extended upto Venkatam (Tirupaths hills). The Kaveri delta region remained the central part of the kingdom. This area was later known as Cholamandalam. Karikal Valavan or Karikalan was the most famous of the Chola kings. He defeated the combined army of the Cheras, Pandyas and the eleven Velir chieftains who supported them at Venni, a small village in the Thanjavur region. He converted forests into cultivable lands. He built Kallanai (meaning a dam made of stone) across the river Kaveri to develop agriculture. Their port Puhar attracted merchants from various regions of the Indian Ocean. The Pattinapaalai, a poetic work in the Pathinen Keel Kanakku, gives elaborate information of the trading activity during the rule of Karikalan.

Kallanai

It was a dyke, built with stones. It was constructed across the Cauvery to divert water throughout the delta region for irrigation. When it was built, kallanai irrigated an area of about 69000 acres.

Prominent Chola Rulers

• Ilanchetsenni
• KarikalValavan
• Kocengannan
• KilliValavan
• Perunarkilli

Pandyas

The Pandyas ruled the present day southern Tamil Nadu. The Pandya kings patronized the Tamil poets and scholars. Several names of Pandya kings are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Neduncheliyan is hailed as the most popular warrior. He defeated the combined army of the Chera, Chola and five Velir Chieftains at Talayalanganam. He is praised as the lord of Korkai. Pandya country was well known for pearl hunting. Pandya kings issued many coins. Their coins have elephants on one side and fish on another side. MudukudimiPeruvaluthi issued coins to commemorate his performance of many Vedic rituals

Prominent Pandya Rulers

• Nediyon
• Nanmaran
• MudukudumiPeruvaluthi
• Neduncheliyan

The Titles Assumed by the Muvendars

Cheras: Adhavan, Kuttuvan, Vanavan, Irumporai
Cholas: Senni, Semibiyan, Killi, Valavan
Pandiyas: Maran, Valuthi, Seliyan, Tennar

Royal Insignia

Sceptre, drum (murasu) and white umbrella (venkudai) were used as the symbols of royal authority.

Muvendar	Garland	Port	Capital	Symbols
Cheras	Palmyra Flower	Muziri or Tondi	Vanchi or Karur	Bow and Arrow
Cholas	Fig (Aththi) flower	Puhar	Uraiyur or Puhar	Tiger
Pandyas	Margosa (Neem) Flower	Korkai	Madurai	Two Fish

Minor Chieftains

Apart from three great kings, there were several brave independent minor chieftains called velirs. The name 'Ay' is derived from the ancient Tamil word 'Aaayarr' (meaning shepherd). Among the chiefs of the Sangam Age, Anthiran, Titiran and Nannan were the important names. The famous Velirs were the seven patrons (Kadai ezhu Vallalgal). They were Pari, Kari, Ori, Pegan, Ay, Adiyaman and Nalli. They were popular for their generous patronage of Tamil poets. Kilar was the village chief.

Sangam Polity

Kingship

The kingship was hereditary. The king was called ko. It is the shortened form of Kon. Vendan, Kon, Mannan, Kotravan and Iraivan were the other titles by which the king was addressed. The eldest son of the reigning king generally succeeded to the throne. The coronation ceremony was known as arasukattilerudhal or mudisoottuvila. The crown prince was known as komahan, while the young ones were known as Ilango, Ilancheliyan and Ilanjeral. King held a daily durbar (naalavai) at which he heard and resolved all the disputes. The income to the state was through taxation. Land tax was the main source of revenue and it was called 'Irai'. This apart, the state collected tolls and customs (sungam), tributes and fines. The kings and soldiers wore the heroic anklet (Veera kal). On the anklet, the name and achievement of the wearer were blazoned. Spies were used not only to find out what was happening within the country, but also in foreign countries. A wound in the back was considered a disgrace and there are instances of kings fasting unto death because they had suffered such a wound in the battle.

The Court

The king's court was called Arasavai. The king occupied a ceremonious throne in the court called Ariyanai. In the court, the king was surrounded by officials, distinguished visitors and court poets. The rulers had five-fold duties. They were encouraging learning, performing rituals, presenting gifts, protecting people and punishing the criminals. Ambassadors were employed by the kings. They played a significant role. The king was assisted by a number of officials. They were divided into Aimperungulu (five-member committee) and Enberaayam (eight-member group).

Army

The king's army consisted of four divisions, namely, infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariot force. The army was known as 'Padai'. The chief of the army was known as Thanaithalaivan. The prominent weapons used during this period were sword, kedayam (shield), tomaram (lance), spears, bows and arrows. Tomaram is mentioned as a missile to be thrown at the enemy from a distance. The place where the weapons were kept was known as paddaikottil. The forts were protected by deep moats and trenches. The war drum was worshipped as a deity.

Law and Justice

The king was the final authority for appeal. In the capital town, the court of justice was called Avai. In the villages, Mandram Served as the place for dispensing justice. Punishment was always severe. Execution was ordered for theft cases. The punishment awarded for other crimes included beheading, mutilation of the offending limbs of the body, torture and imprisonment and imposition of fines.

Local Administration

The entire kingdom was called Mandalam. Mandalam was divided into Nadus. Kurram was a subdivision of Nadu. The Ur was a village, classified into perur (big village), Sirur (a small village) and Mudur (an old village) depending upon its population, size and antiquity. Pattinam was the name for a coastal town and Puhar was the general term for harbour town.

Important Towns

Puhar, Uraiyur, Korkai, Madurai, Muziri, Vanji or Karur and Kanchi.

Thinai (tract-based) Sangam Society

The landform was divided into five thinais (eco-regions).

Eco region (thinai)	Landscape	Occupation	People	Deity
Kurinji	Hilly region	Hunting or gathering	Kuravar or Kuratiyar	Murugan
Mullai	Forest region	Herding	Aayarr or atchiyar	Maayon
Marutham	Riverine track (plains)	Agriculture	Ulavar or Ulatiyar	Indiran
Neithal	Coastal region	Fishing or salt making	Parathavar or Nulaithiyar	Varunan
Palai	Parched Land	Heroic deeds	Maravar or Marathiyar	Kotravai

Land was classified according to its fertility. Marutham was called menpulam (fertile land). It produced paddy and sugarcane. The rest of the landscape, excluding Neithal, was called vanpulam (hard land), and it produced pulses and dry grains.

Status of Women

There was no restriction for women in social life. There were learned and wise women. Forty women poets had lived and left behind their valuable works. Marriage was a matter of self-choice. However, chastity (karpu) was considered the highest virtue of women. Sons and daughters had equal shares in their parents' property.

Women Poets of Sangam Age

Avvaiyar, Velli Veethiyar, Kakkaipadiniyar, Aathi Manthiyar, Pon Mudiyar

Religious Beliefs and Social Divisions

The primary deity of the Tamils was Seyon or Murugan. Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Sivan, Mayon (Vishnu), Indiran, Varunan and Kotravai. The Hero stone otherwise called as natukkal worship was in practice. Buddhism and Jainism also co-existed

Veerakkal or Natukkal

The ancient Tamils had a great respect for the heroes who died in the battlefield. The hero stones were erected to commemorate heroes who sacrificed their lives in war.

Caste did not develop in Tamilagam as it did in the northern India. Varuna system (occupation- based caste) came to the Dravidian south comparatively late.

Dress and Ornaments

The rich people wore muslin, silk and fine cotton garments. The common people wore two pieces of clothes made of cotton. The Sangam literature refers to clothes (Kalingam), which were thinner than the skin of a snake. Women adorned their hair plaits with flowers. Both men and women wore a variety of ornaments. They were made of gold, silver, pearls, precious stones, conch shells and beads. The People were fond of using aromatic perfumes.

Arts

There are many references to a variety of musical instruments such as drum, flute and yal. Karikalan was a master of seven notes of music (ElisaiVallavan). Singing bards were called panar and viraliyar. Dancing was performed by kanigaiyar. Koothu (folk drama) was the most important cultural practice of the people of Sangam Age. They developed the concept of Muthamil (Iyal, Isai, Naatakam).

Occupation

The major occupations of the people were: agriculture, cattle rearing, fishing and hunting. Other craftsmen like carpenter, blacksmith, goldsmith, and potters were also part of the population. Weaving was the most common part-time occupation of the farmers and a regular full-time job for many others.

Festivals and Entertainments

People celebrated several festivals. The harvest festival (Pongal) and the festival of spring, kaarthigai were some of them. Indira vila was celebrated in the capital. There were many amusements and games. This included dances, festivals, bull fights, cock fights, dice, hunting, wrestling and playing on swings. Children played with toy carts and with the sand houses made by them.

Trade

Trade existed at three levels: local, overland and overseas. The extensive and lucrative foreign trade that Tamilagam enjoyed during this period stands testimony to the fact that Tamils had been great seafarers. Warehouses for storing the goods were built along the coast. The chief ports had lighthouses, which were called KalangaraillanguSudar. Caravans' merchants carried their merchandise to different places in oxen-driven carts. Barter system was prevalent.

Malabar Black Pepper

When the Mummy of Ramses 2 of Egypt was uncovered, archaeologists found black peppercorns stuffed into his nostrils and in his abdomen (as a part of embalming process practised in olden day).

There were two kinds of markets or bazaars in the leading cities like Puhar and Madurai. In Madurai they were Nalangadi (the morning market) and Allangadi (the evening market). In these markets large varieties as well as large quantities of goods were sold and purchased.

Major Ports

Musiri, Tondi, Korkai

Main Exports

Salt, pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, spices, diamonds, saffron, precious stones, muslin, sandalwood

Main Imports

Topaz, tin, glass, horses

Do You Know?

Silk supplied by Indian merchants to the Roman Empire was considered so important that the Roman emperor Aurelian declared it to be worth its weight in gold.

Muziris – First Emporium

The Roman writer Pliny the Elder writes of Muziris in his Natural History as the 'fist emporium (shopping complex) of India'. A temple of Augustus was built at Muziris, which had a Roman colony. A papyrus document (now in Vienna Museum) of second century BCE (Before Common Era) records the agreement between two merchants' shippers of Alexandria and Muziris.

Trade Contact with Overseas Countries

Archaeological excavations have confirmed the trading relations between the Tamilagam and the countries such as Greece, Rome, Egypt, China, South East Asia and Sri Lanka.

Kalabhras

Towards the end of the Third century CE (Common Era), the Sangam period slowly went into a decline. Following the Sangam period, the Kalabhras had occupied the Tamil country for about two and half centuries. We have very little information about Kalabhras. They left neither artefacts nor monuments. But there is evidence of their rule in literary texts. The literary sources for this period include Tamil Navalar Charithai, Yapernkalam and Periapuranam. Seevaka Chinthamani and Kundalakesi were also written during this period. In Tamilagam, Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period. Introduction of Sanskrit and Prakrit languages had resulted in the development of a new script called Vatteluththu. Many works under Pathinen Keelkanakku were composed. Trade and commerce continued to flourish during this period. So, the Kalabhra period is not a dark age, as it is portrayed.

Summary

The word 'Sangam' refers to the association of poets who flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings at Madurai. Muvendars the Cheras, Cholas and the Pandyas controlled the territories of Tamilagam during the Sangam Age. Apart from three great monarchs, Tamil country was ruled by several independent minor chieftains. Archaeological excavations have confirmed the trading relations between Tamilagam and many foreign countries. Towards the end of the Third Century CE (Common Era), the Sangam period slowly started to decline. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country. Evidence of their rule is available in Jain and Buddhist literature

Glossary

Strove (v) tried hard கடும்முயற்சி Dynasty (n) a line of hereditary rulers ராஜவம்சம் Commemorate (v) to honour the memory of கௌரவிப்பதற்காக Royal insignia (n) symbols of power அரசசின்னம் Patronage (n) support given by a patron ஆதரவு Blazoned (v) displayed vividly வெளிக்காட்டுதல் Acquitted (v) released விடுதலை Bards (n) poets singing in praise of princes and brave men புலவர்கள் Warehouses (n) a large building for keeping goods சேமிப்புகிடங்கு Portrayed (v) described elaborately சித்தரிக்கப்பட்டுள்ளது Exercise 1. Choose the correct answer

1. Pattini cult in Tamil Nadu was introduced by ____.

a) Pandian Nedunchelian b) Cheran Senguttuvan c) Ilango Adigal d) Muda thiru maran

Answer: b) Cheran Senguttuvan

2. Which dynasty was not in power during the sangam Age ____?

a) Pandyas b) Cholas c) Pallavas d) Cheras

Answer: c) Pallavas

3. The rule of Pandyas was followed by ____

a) Satavahanas b) Cholas c) Kalabhras d) Pallavas

Answer: c) Kalabhras

4. The lowest unit of administration during the Sangam Age was ____

a) Mandalam b) Nadu c) Ur d) Pattinam

Answer: c) Ur

5. What was the occupation of the inhabitants of the Kurinji region?

a) Plundering b) Cattle rearing c) Hunting and gathering d) Agriculture

Answer: c) Hunting and gathering

Exercise 2. Read the Statement and tick the appropriate answer

1. Assertion (A): The assembly of the poets was known as Sangam.

Reason (R): Tamil was the language of Sangam literature.

a) Both A and R are true. R is the correct explanation of A. b) Both A and R are true. R is not the correct explanation of A. c) A is true but R is false. d) Both A and R are not true.

Answer: a) Both A and R are true. R is the correct explanation of A.

2. Which of the following statements are not true?

1. Karikala won the battle of Talayalanganam.
2. The Pathitrupathu provides information about Chera Kings.
3. The earliest literature of the Sangam age was written mostly in the form of prose.

a) 1 only b) 1 and 3 only c) 2 only

Answer: b) 1 and 3 only

3. The ascending order of the administrative division in the ancient Tamilagam was

a) Ur < Nadu < Kurram < Mandalam b) Ur < Kurram < Nadu < Mandalam c) Ur < Mandalam < Kurram < Nadu d) Nadu < Kurram < Mandalam < Ur

Answer: b) Ur < Kurram < Nadu < Mandalam

4. Match the following dynasties with the Royal Insignia

A) Chera - 1) Two Fish
B) Chola - 2) Tiger
C) Pandya - 3) Bow and arrow

a) 3 2 1 b) 1 2 3 c) 3 1 2 d) 2 1 3

Answer: A) Chera - Bow and arrow, B) Chola - Tiger, C) Pandya - Two Fish

Exercise 3. Fill in the blanks

1. The battle of Venni was won by .

Answer: Karikal valavan

2. The earliest Tamil grammar work of the Sangam period was .

Answer: Tholkappiyam

3. built Kallanai across the river Kaveri.

Answer: Karikalan

4. The chief of the army was known as .

Answer: Thanai thalaivan

5. Land revenue was called .

Answer: Irai

Exercise 4. True or False 1. The singing bards of the Sangam age were called Irular.

Answer: False

2. Caste system developed during the Sangam period.

Answer: False

3. Kilar was the village chief.

Answer: True

4. Puhar was the general term for the city.

Answer: False

5. Coastal region was called Marudham.

Answer: False

Exercise 5. Match

a. Thennar
b. Vanavar
c. Senni
d. Adiyaman

Answer: a. Thennar - Pandyas, b. Vanavar - Cheras, c. Senni - Cholas, d. Adiyaman - Velir

Exercise 6. Answer in one or two sentences

1. Name any two literary sources to reconstruct the history of ancient Tamilagam.

2. What was Natukkal or Virakkal?

3. Name five thinais mentioned in the Sangam literature.

4. Name any two archaeological sites related to the Sangam period.

5. Name the seven patrons (Kadaiyelu Vallalgal).

6. Name any three Tamil poetic works of Kalabhra period.

Exercise 7. Answer the following

1. Discuss the status of women in the Sangam Society.

Exercise 8. Higher Order Thinking

1. Karikal Valavan is regarded as the greatest Chola king. Justify

2. The period of Kalabhra is not a dark age. Give reasons.

Exercise 9. Map Work

1. Mark and colour the extent of Chera, Chola and Pandya empires on the river map of South India.

2. Mark the following places. Korkai, Kaveripoompattinam, Musiri, Uraiyur, Madurai

Exercise 10. Life skill

1. Collect and paste the pictures of the landscape and find out the eco-region to which it belongs. Write the important crops grown and occupation of the people there.

Exercise 11. Answer Grid

Mention two epics of the Sangam periods.

Answer: Silapathikaram, Manimegalai

Name the two groups of officials who assisted the King.

Answer: Aimperunguzhu, Enperayam

Name any two women poets of the Sangam Period.

Answer: Awwaiyar, Velli Veethiyar

Name any three majors ports of Sangam age.

Answer: Musiri, Tondi, Korkai

What constituted Muthamizh?

Answer: Iyal, Isai, Naatakam

Silapathikaram was written by ____

Answer: Ilango Adigal

Talayalanganam is related to which Pandya king?

Answer: Nedunchezhiyan

Which ecoregion was called menpulam?

Answer: Marutham

The light houses in the ports are called ____

Answer: 1. Kalangarai 2. Flangu Sudar

Book-back Exercises — Questions & Answers

Answers generated strictly from the Samacheer Kalvi textbook content. Attempt each question first, then click "Show Answer" to check.

1. Choose the correct answer

1. Pattini cult in Tamil Nadu was introduced by ___.

a) Pandian Nedunchelian b) Cheran Senguttuvan c) Ilango Adigal d) Muda thiru maran

Answer: b) Cheran Senguttuvan

Explanation: According to the chapter, Chera king Senguttuvan brought stones from the Himalayas to make the idol of Kannagi and introduced the pattini cult.

2. Which dynasty was not in power during the sangam Age ___?

a) Pandyas b) Cholas c) Pallavas d) Cheras

Answer: c) Pallavas

Explanation: The chapter mentions that the Muvendars (Three Great Kings) - the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas ruled during the Sangam Age. Pallavas are not mentioned as rulers of this period.

3. The rule of Pandyas was followed by ___

a) Satavahanas b) Cholas c) Kalabhras d) Pallavas

Answer: c) Kalabhras

Explanation: The chapter states that towards the end of the Third century CE, following the Sangam period, the Kalabhras had occupied the Tamil country for about two and half centuries.

4. The lowest unit of administration during the Sangam Age was ___

a) Mandalam b) Nadu c) Ur d) Pattinam

Answer: c) Ur

Explanation: According to the chapter's administrative hierarchy, Ur was a village, which was the smallest administrative unit in the system of Mandalam divided into Nadus, with Kurram as subdivision of Nadu.

5. What was the occupation of the inhabitants of the Kurinji region?

a) Plundering b) Cattle rearing c) Hunting and gathering d) Agriculture

Answer: c) Hunting and gathering

Explanation: The chapter clearly states that in Kurinji thinai (hilly region), the occupation was hunting or gathering and the people were Kuravar or Kuratiyar.

2. Read the Statement and tick the appropriate answer

1. Assertion (A): The assembly of the poets was known as Sangam. Reason (R): Tamil was the language of Sangam literature.

a) Both A and R are true. R is the correct explanation of A. b) Both A and R are true. R is not the correct explanation of A. c) A is true but R is false. d) Both A and R are not true.

Answer: b) Both A and R are true. R is not the correct explanation of A.

Explanation: The chapter states that 'Sangam' refers to the association of poets who flourished under royal patronage, and the poems were composed in Tamil, but the language being Tamil doesn't explain why the assembly was called Sangam.

2. Which of the following statements are not true? 1. Karikala won the battle of Talayalanganam. 2. The Pathitrupathu provides information about Chera Kings. 3. The earliest literature of the Sangam age was written mostly in the form of prose.

a) 1 only b) 1 and 3 only c) 2 only

Answer: b) 1 and 3 only

Explanation: Statement 1 is false because Neduncheliyan defeated the combined army at Talayalanganam, not Karikala. Statement 3 is false as Sangam literature was written in verse form, not prose. Statement 2 is true as the chapter confirms Pathitrupathu provides information about Chera kings.

3. The ascending order of the administrative division in the ancient Tamilagam was

a) Ur < Nadu < Kurram < Mandalam b) Ur < Kurram < Nadu < Mandalam c) Ur < Mandalam < Kurram < Nadu d) Nadu < Kurram < Mandalam < Ur

Answer: b) Ur < Kurram < Nadu < Mandalam

Explanation: According to the chapter, the entire kingdom was called Mandalam, divided into Nadus, Kurram was a subdivision of Nadu, and Ur was a village - the smallest unit.

4. Match the following dynasties with the Royal Insignia: A) Chera 1) Two Fish B) Chola 2) Tiger C) Pandya 3) Bow and arrow

a) 3 2 1 b) 1 2 3 c) 3 1 2 d) 2 1 3

Answer: a) 3 2 1

Explanation: According to the chapter, Cheras had bow and arrow as symbols, Cholas had tiger, and Pandyas had two fish as their symbols.

3. Fill in the blanks

1. The battle of Venni was won by ___.

Answer: Karikal Valavan

2. The earliest Tamil grammar work of the Sangam period was ___.

Answer: Tholkappiyam

3. ___ built Kallanai across the river Kaveri.

Answer: Karikalan

4. The chief of the army was known as ___.

Answer: Thanaithalaivan

5. Land revenue was called ___.

Answer: Irai

4. True or False

1. The singing bards of the Sangam age were called Irular.

Answer: False

2. Caste system developed during the Sangam period.

Answer: False

3. Kilar was the village chief.

Answer: True

4. Puhar was the general term for the city.

Answer: False

5. Coastal region was called Marudham.

Answer: False

5. Match

5. Match the Following

a. Thennar	Cheras
b. Vanavar	Cholas
c. Senni	Velir
d. Adiyaman	Pandyas

Answers: a-Pandyas, b-Cheras, c-Cholas, d-Velir

6. Answer in one or two sentences

1. Name any two literary sources to reconstruct the history of ancient Tamilagam.

Answer: Tholkappiyam and Ettuthogai are two literary sources for ancient Tamilagam history. The Silapathikaram and Manimegalai epics also provide valuable information.

2. What was Natukkal or Virakkal?

Answer: Natukkal or Virakkal were hero stones erected to commemorate heroes who sacrificed their lives in war. The ancient Tamils had great respect for heroes who died in the battlefield.

3. Name five thinais mentioned in the Sangam literature.

Answer: The five thinais are Kurinji (hilly region), Mullai (forest region), Marutham (riverine plains), Neithal (coastal region), and Palai (parched land).

4. Name any two archaeological sites related to the Sangam period.

Answer: Adichanallur and Arikamedu are two important archaeological sites related to the Sangam period. Other sites include Kodumanal and Puhar.

5. Name the seven patrons (Kadaiyelu Vallalgal).

Answer: The seven patrons were Pari, Kari, Ori, Pegan, Ay, Adiyaman and Nalli. They were popular for their generous patronage of Tamil poets.

6. Name any three Tamil poetic works of Kalabhra period.

Answer: Seevaka Chinthamani, Kundalakesi and many works under Pathinen Keelkanakku were composed during the Kalabhra period.

7. Answer the following

1. Discuss the status of women in the Sangam Society.

Answer: Women enjoyed a high status in Sangam society. There was no restriction for women in social life and there were learned and wise women. Forty women poets lived and left behind valuable works including Avvaiyar and Velli Veethiyar. Marriage was a matter of self-choice, though chastity was considered the highest virtue. Sons and daughters had equal shares in their parents' property, showing gender equality in inheritance rights.

8. Higher Order Thinking

1. Karikal Valavan is regarded as the greatest Chola king. Justify.

Answer: Karikal Valavan was the most famous Chola king who achieved remarkable military and administrative success. He defeated the combined army of Cheras, Pandyas and eleven Velir chieftains at Venni. He converted forests into cultivable lands and built the famous Kallanai across river Kaveri to develop agriculture. His port Puhar attracted merchants from various regions, and he was known as a master of seven notes of music. These achievements in warfare, agriculture, trade and culture justify his status as the greatest Chola king.

2. The period of Kalabhra is not a dark age. Give reasons.

Answer: The Kalabhra period was not a dark age because significant literary and cultural developments occurred during this time. Important works like Seevaka Chinthamani, Kundalakesi and many works under Pathinen Keelkanakku were composed. Jainism and Buddhism became prominent, leading to cultural enrichment. A new script called Vatteluththu was developed due to Sanskrit and Prakrit influence. Trade and commerce continued to flourish during this period, indicating economic prosperity and cultural continuity rather than decline.

11. Answer Grid

1. Mention two epics of the Sangam periods.

Answer: Silapathikaram, Manimegalai

2. Name the two groups of officials who assisted the King.

Answer: Aimperungulu, Enberaayam

3. Name any two women poets of the Sangam Period.

Answer: Avvaiyar, Velli Veethiyar

4. Name any three major ports of Sangam age.

Answer: Musiri, Tondi, Korkai

5. What constituted Muthamizh?

Answer: Iyal, Isai, Naatakam

6. Silapathikaram was written by ___.

Answer: Ilango Adigal

7. Talayalanganam is related to which Pandya king?

Answer: Neduncheliyan

8. Which ecoregion was called menpulam?

Answer: Marutham

9. The light houses in the ports are called ___.

Answer: Kalangarai or Ilangu Sudar

📝 Summary

1. The Sangam Age (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE) refers to the period when poets flourished under royal patronage of Pandya kings at Madurai, creating the collective body of Sangam literature.
2. Three great dynasties called Muvendars ruled Tamilagam during this period: the Cheras (central and north Travancore, Cochin, south Malabar and Kongu region), Cholas (extended up to Venkatam hills with Kaveri delta as center), and Pandyas.
3. Multiple sources provide information about this period including inscriptions (Hathigumpha, Pugalur, Ashokan Edicts), copper plates (Velvikudi, Chinnamanur), coins, megalithic monuments, and excavated materials from sites like Adichanallur and Arikamedu.
4. Literary sources include Tolkappiyam (Tamil grammar work), Ettuthogai (eight anthologies), Pathupattu (ten idylls), epics like Silapathikaram and Manimegalai, along with foreign notices from Periplus of Erythrean Sea and Pliny's Natural History.
5. Notable rulers included Chera king Senguttuvan who conducted military expeditions to North India and introduced the pattini cult, and his brother Ilango Adigal who authored Silapathikaram, while Cheral Irumporai issued coins with bow and arrow emblems.