Art And Architecture Of Tamil Nadu

Class 7 | Social Science — History | Unit 2

Class 7 Unit 2 History

Learning Objectives

• To understand the evolution of temple architecture in South India
• To gain knowledge about the cultural heritage of Tamils
• To know the contribution of Pallavas, Cholas, Vijayanagara and Nayak rulers to the development of temple art in Tamil Nadu

Introduction

Dravidian architecture is of indigenous origin. It advanced over time by a process of evolution. The earliest examples of the Tamil Dravidian architectural tradition were the Seventh century rock-cut shrines at Mahabalipuram. The absence of monuments in South India prior to the Seventh century is attributed by scholars to temples ought to have been built in wood, which were eventually destroyed by forces of nature. In Tamil Nadu, the evolution of temple architecture took place in five stages: (1) The Pallava Epoch (CE 600 to 850); (2) Early Chola Epoch (CE 850 to 1100); (3) Later Chola Epoch (CE 1100 to 1350); (4) Vijayanagara / Nayak Epoch (CE 1350 to 1600); and (5) Modern Epoch (After CE 1600).

Pallava Epoch

The Pallava epoch witnessed a transition from rock-cut to free-standing temples. Rock-cut temples were initially built by carving a rock to the required design and then rocks were cut to build temples. The Pallava king Mahendravarman was a pioneer in rock-cut architecture. Mandagapattu temple was the first rock-cut temple built by him. The rock-cut cave structure has two pillars in the front that hold it. All the cave temples have simple sanctum cut on the rear side of the wall with a frontage-projecting mandapa (pavilion). On either side are two dwarapalas (gatekeepers). This cave architecture reached its decadent phase after CE 700 and gave way to the large structural temples probably because the structural temples provided a wider scope to the sculptor to use his skill. The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, also called the Seven Pagodas, was built by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman 2. It is the oldest structural temple in South India. The structural temples were built using blocks of rock instead of a whole block as earlier. Narasimhavarman 2, also known as Rajasimha, built the Kanchi Kailasanatha temple. The Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchipuram was built by Nandivarman 2. Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) is built of cut stones rather than carved out of caves. It has two shrines, one dedicated to Siva and the other to Vishnu. The Tamil Dravida tradition is exemplified by rock-cut monuments such as Pancha Pandava Rathas, namely Draupadi ratha, Dharmaraja ratha, Bheema ratha, Arjuna ratha and Nagula-Sahadeva ratha. The outer walls of the rathas, especially of Arjuna, Bhima and Dharmaraja, are decorated with niches and motifs. The niches have the sculptures of gods, goddesses, monarchs and scenes from mythology. The Arjuna's Penance, carved on the face of a granite boulder, is a magnificent relief, measuring approximately 100 feet long by 45 feet high.

Do You Know?

The Mamallapuram monuments and temples, including the Shore Temple complex, were notified as a United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organization World Heritage Site in 1984.

Pandya Temples in the Pallava Epoch

Early Pandyas were the contemporaries of the Pallavas. Unlike the Pallavas, Pandyas installed deities in the sanctums in their cave temples. More than fifty cave temples have been found in different parts of the Pandyan Empire. The most important of them are found in Malaiyadikurichi, Anaimalai, Tiruparankundram and Trichirappali. These caves were dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Brahma. In the Siva temple of Pandyas, the linga is carved out of the mother rock. The figure of Nandhi is also carved out of the rock. The Siva lingam in the sanctum is installed in the centre with enough space all around it. The sanctum also has a drainage canal. The pillars are divided into three parts and are of different sizes. The pillars have no uniform ornamentation. The back side walls are divided into four niches on which the bas-relief images of Siva, Vishnu, Durga, Ganapathy, Subramanya, Surya, Brahma and Saraswathi are carved out. The dwarapalas figure on either side of sanctum. Rock-cut and structural temples are significant part of the Pandya architecture. The illustrious example for rock-cut style is unfinished Kazhugumalai Vettuvankoil temple. The Vettuvankoil, a monolithic temple at Kazhugumalai, is hewn out of a huge boulder on four sides. At the top of the temple, sculptures of Uma Maheswarar, Dakshinamoorthy, Vishnu and Brahma are found. Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple in Tirunelveli represent examples of Pandyas' architectural style.

Sculptures

The walls of the caves are decorated with the bas relief of the gods and goddesses. In the case of structural temples, the walls of the sanctums are free from image decorations. Instead the superstructures and the pillars have the sculptures. The sculptures look majestic, having elaborate shoulders, slim bodies, beautiful ornaments and high crowns. Tiruparankundram, Anaimalai and Kazhugumalai have the bas relief of many deities: Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, Parvathi, Subramanya, Ganapathi and Dakshinamoorthy. These are some remarkable images of the cave temples. Many early Pandya images unearthed from Madurai and its surrounding areas are now in Tirumalai Nayakkar museum at Madurai.

Paintings

Caves at Sittanavasal, 15 kilometres away from Pudukkottai, and at Tirumalapuram in Sankarankovil taluk, Tirunelveli district, have outstanding early Pandya paintings. Sittanavasal was a residential cave of the Jain monks. They painted the walls with fresco painting. Unfortunately, we have lost many of those paintings. Among the surviving ones, the lotus pond is notable for its excellent execution of colours and exposition of the scene. The image of lotus flowers, leaves spread all over the pond, animals, elephants, buffaloes, swans and a man who plucks the flowers look brilliant. The Sittanavasal paintings have similarities with the Ajantha paintings. Tirumalaipuram, from where we get early Pandya paintings, are in a damaged condition.

The Early Chola Epoch

The Cholas came to limelight in CE 850 under Vijaylaya Chola and continued to govern the region for about four hundred years. For the Early Chola epoch, the temple at Dadapuram, near Tindivanam in Tamil Nadu, is worth mentioning. The early Chola architecture followed the style of Sembian Mahadevi. Temples with the increased number of devakoshta (niche) figures can be classified as belonging to the Sembiyan style. Tiruppurambiyam is an illustrious example of early temple that was re-fashioned in the days of Sembiyan Mahadevi.

Later Chola Epoch

The maturity attained by Chola architecture is reflected in the two magnificent temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda cholapuram. The magnificent Thanjavur Big Temple dedicated to Siva, completed around CE 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja.

Thanjavur Big Temple

At the time the Big Temple of Thanjavur was constructed, it was a huge temple complex. The 216 feet vimana (structure over the garbhagriha) is notable as it is one among the tallest man-made shikaras of the world. Due to its massive height, the shikara is called the Dakshina Meru. The huge bull statue (Nandi) measures about 16 feet long and 13 feet height and is carved out of a single rock.

Gangaikonda Cholapuram

Gangaikonda Cholapuram served as the Chola capital for about 250 years, until the decline of the Cholas and the rise of the Pandyas. The Brihadeeshwara temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built by Rajendra Chola, is undoubtedly as worthy a successor to the Brihadeeshwara temple of Thanjavur. The height of the temple is 55 meter. The sanctum has two storeys as in the big temple at Thanjavur. The outer wall has many projections with niches and recesses on three sides. In the niches there are the images of Siva, Vishnu and other gods. This temple complex has the shrines of Chandeeswarar, Ganesa and Mahishasura Mardhini.

Dharasuram

Dharasuram, near Kumbakonam, is a Later Chola period temple, rich in architectural splendour, dedicated to Iravatheswara (Siva as god of lord Indira's elephant). Rajaraja 2 constructed this temple. This temple is another landmark of the Chola architecture. The Mahamandapam is an elaborate structure. The entire structure looks like a ratha because it has four wheels at the Mahamandapam. The sanctum and pillars have many sculptures, which are miniatures of various mythological figures. A compound wall runs round the temple with a gopuram.

Later Pandyas

The contribution of Later Pandyas to South Indian art was significant. A case in point is the cave temple at Pillayarpatti (near Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu) belonging to Thirteenth century. This temple is important both for its sculptures and for an inscription. A beautiful Ganesha is carved facing the entrance. The importance of the figure, referred to Desivinayaga in the cave inscription, is that there are two arms with the trunk turning to the right.

Vijayanagara Epoch

During the Vijayanagara epoch, a new form of construction emerged. It is the mandapam (pavilion) to where the gods are carried every year. Pillared outdoor mandapams are meant for public rituals with the ones in the east serving as the waiting room for devotees, which adorn the large temples. These mandapams attract attention for its monolithic pillars. On these pillars are sculptured horses, lions and the gods. The kalyana mandapam at Kanchipuram (Varadaraja Perumal temple) and at Vellore (Jalagandeshwar temple) are notable examples. The most celebrated of these mandapams in temple of Madurai is the Pudumandapam. The main features of the Vijayanagar and Nayak architecture are decorated mandapas, ornamental pillars, life-size images, gopuras, prakaras, music pillars, floral works and stone windows during the 15th to 17th centuries. Tanks are attached to the temples. Gateways to temple are constructed from four directions with massive gopurams. The practice of fitting the niches with sculptures continued during the Nayak period. There was an increased use of major sculptured figures (relief sculpture) as found at the Alakiya Nambi temple at Tirukkurungudi (Tirunelveli district) and the Gopalakrishna temple in the Ranganatha temple complex at Srirangam. The southern festival mandapam of Adinatha temple at Azhwar Tirunagari and the porch of the Nellaiyappar temple at Tirunelveli are other notable examples. In Tamil Nadu, the image of deities attached to composite columns gradually freed themselves from the core column. The 1000-pillar mandapam of the Meenakshi-Sundareswarar temple, Pudumandapam at Madurai, Rathi Mandapam at Tirukkurungudi and Vanamamalai Temple at Nanguneri are illustrious examples for the mandapam architecture of this period. The pillars of this period are more decorative than the previous period. Monolithic gigantic yazhi pillars, horse pillars with life-size portraits of mythological and royal family members, common folk, animals and floral works were made. Musical pillars were the peculiar feature of this time. A sitting lion at the top of the pillars is a common feature in the mandapams. The windows are carved out on the walls of the sanctum and mandapams. The Jalagandeshwara temple at Vellore, the temples at Thadikompu near Dindugal and Krishnapuram near Tirunelveli and the Subramanya shrine in the Big Temple Thanjavur are most remarkable edifices of this time. Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings are seen at Varadharaja Perumal temple at Kanchipuram, Kudalazhagar Temple at Madurai and the temples of Srivilliputhur, Tiruvellarai, Azhaharkoil, Tiruvannamalai and Srirangam. The paintings mostly have the stories from Ramayana, palace scenes and mythological stories.

Modern Period (After CE 1600)

The Sethupathis, as the feudatories of Madurai Nayaks, ruled Ramanathapuram and contributed to the Ramanathaswamy temple architecture. In the temple of Rameswaram, the predominance of corridors is striking. It is claimed that this temple has the longest set of corridors in the world. The temple has three sets of corridors. The outer set of the temple's corridors has a height of almost 7 metres and stretches for about 120 metres in both the eastern and western directions. The corridors to the north and to the south, on the other hand, are about 195 metres in length. The outer corridor is also remarkable for the number of pillars that support it, which is over 1200 in number. Moreover, many of these pillars are decorated by ornate carvings. The innermost set of corridors is the oldest of the three.

Summary

In sum, the Pallava period featured sculptural rocks. The early Chola period was marked by grand vimanas. The Later Chola period was known for beautiful gopurams. Vijayanagar period's unique feature was the mandapam and the modern period was when corridors were given prominence.

References

1. K A Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India: From Pre-Historic Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar Empire (Oxford University Press, 1997) - with an introduction by R. Champakalakshmi.
2. Burton Stein, A History of India, Oxford University Press, 2004.
3. Crispin Branfoot, "The Architectural Sculpture of the South Indian Temples, From 1500 To 1700," Artibus Asiae, volume. 62, No.2, 2002.
4. Crispin Branfoot, "The Tamil Gopura: From Temple Gateway to Global Icon," ARS Orientalis volume 45, 2015.
5. https://www.britannica.com

Glossary

Indigenous (adj) native சுதேசம், உள் நாடு Epoch (n) era, age சகாபம், வரலாற்றின் ஒரு காலகட்டம் Sanctum (n) a sacred place set apart in a temple கருவறை Decadent (adj) corrupt, a state of moral decline சீர்கேடான Exemplified (v) illustrated, represented எடுத்துக்காட்டாய் திகழ்கிறது Niche (n) a cavity, especially in a wall to display a statue சிலை வைக்கப்படும் இடம் Motif (n) a decorative design forming a pattern in an artistic work கலைப்பண்புக் கூறு Boulder (n) a very large rock பெரிய கற்பாறை, பாறாங்கல் Contemporaries (n) living or occurring at the same time சமகாலத்தை சேர்ந்தவர்கள் Hewn (adj) cut out and shaped செதுக்கப்பட்ட bas-relief (n) a sculpture carved into a wall சுவற்றில் செதுக்கப்படும் சிற்பம் Execution (n) carrying out செயல் திறன் ஒன்றை செய்து முடித்தல் Recesses (n) hollow spaces inside the wall or a structure உட்பகுதிகள், இடைவெளிகள்

Evaluation

Exercise I. Choose the correct answer:

1. Which is the oldest structural temple in south India?

a) Shore Temple b) Mandagapattu c) Kailasanatha Temple d) Vaikuntha Perumal Temple

2. In which year were the Mamallapuram monuments and temples notified as a UNESCO world Heritage site?

a) 1964 b) 1994 c) 1974 d) 1984

3. What was the special feature of the architecture of early Chola period?

a) bas-reliefs b) vimanas c) corridors d) gopurams

4. Where is the Azhakiya Nambi Temple situated?

a) Tirukkurungudi b) Madurai c) Tirunelveli d) Srivilliputhur

5. Who built the Vaikuntha Perumal Temple?

a) Mahendravarman b) Narasimhavarman c) Rajasimha d) Nandivarman II Exercise 2. Fill in the Blanks:

1. was the first rock-cut cave temple built by the Pallava king Mahendravarman.

2. The early Chola architecture followed the style of .

3. The most celebrated mandapam in Madurai Meenakshiamman temple is the .

4. Later Chola period was known for beautiful .

5. Vijayanagar period's unique feature is the .

Exercise 3. Match the following:

1. Seven Pagodas
2. Rathi mandapam
3. Iravatheswara temple
4. Adinatha Temple
5. Pudumandapam

Exercise 4. Find out the wrong pair:

1. Krishnapuram Temple – Tirunelveli

2. Kudalazhagar Temple – Azhwar Tirunagari

3. Sethupathis – Feudatories of Madurai Nayaks

4. Jalagandeshwara temple – Vellore

2. Assertion (A): The predominance of corridors of Rameswaram Temple is striking.
Reason (R): The Temple has the largest set of corridors in the world.

a) R is not the correct explanation of A b) R is the correct explanation of A c) A is correct but R is wrong d) Both A and R are wrong Exercise 3. Find out the odd one out:

Srivilliputhur, Azhaharkoil, Srirangam, Kanchipuram, Tiruvannamalai.

Exercise 4. Name the epoch of the following:

a) CE 600 to 850

b) CE 850 to 1100

c) CE 1100 to 1350

d) CE 1350 to 1600

Exercise 5. Find out the correct statement/s:

1) The Arjuna's Penance is carved out of a granite boulder.

2) Meenakshi Amman temple in Madurai represents Pallava's architectural style.

3) The cave temple at Pillayarpatti is a contribution of Later Pandyas.

4) The Sethupathis as feudatories of Madurai Nayaks contributed to Madurai Meenakshiamman Temple.

Exercise 5. State true or false: 1. Rajasimha built the Kanchi Kailasanatha temple. 2. Early Pandyas were the contemporaries of Later Cholas. 3. Rock-cut and structural temples are significant parts of the Pandya architecture. 4. Brihadeeshwara temple was built by Rajendra Chola. 5. Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings are seen at temple at Dadapuram. Exercise 6. Give short answers:

1. Write a note on Pancha Pandava Rathas.

2. Throw light on the paintings of Sittanavasal.

3. Point out the special features of Thanjavur Big temple.

4. Highlight the striking features of Rameswaram Temple.

Exercise 7. Answer the following in detail:

1. The Pallava epoch witnessed a transition from rock-cut to free standing temples. Explain.

2. Discuss how the architecture of Vijayanagara and Nayak period was different from the one of Pallavas and Later Cholas.

Exercise 8. Higher Order Thinkings:

1. Dravidian architecture is of indigenous origin - Explain.

2. Temple art was at its best during the Nayak Period - Elucidate.

Exercise 9. Activity:

Visiting temples built during the times of Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas and Nayak rulers and see the differences in the structural and sculptural designs of each epoch.

Unit 3

Book-back Exercises — Questions & Answers

Answers generated strictly from the Samacheer Kalvi textbook content. Attempt each question first, then click "Show Answer" to check.

I. Choose the correct answer

1. Which is the oldest structural temple in south India?

a) Shore Temple b) Mandagapattu c) Kailasanatha Temple d) Vaikuntha Perumal Temple

Answer: a) Shore Temple

Explanation: The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram was built by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman 2. It is the oldest structural temple in South India.

2. In which year were the Mamallapuram monuments and temples notified as a UNESCO world Heritage site?

a) 1964 b) 1994 c) 1974 d) 1984

Answer: d) 1984

Explanation: The Mamallapuram monuments and temples, including the Shore Temple complex, were notified as a United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organization World Heritage Site in 1984.

3. What was the special feature of the architecture of early Chola period?

a) bas-reliefs b) vimanas c) corridors d) gopurams

Answer: b) vimanas

Explanation: The early Chola period was marked by grand vimanas as mentioned in the summary of the chapter.

4. Where is the Azhakiya Nambi Temple situated?

a) Tirukkurungudi b) Madurai c) Tirunelveli d) Srivilliputhur

Answer: a) Tirukkurungudi

Explanation: The Alakiya Nambi temple is situated at Tirukkurungudi (Tirunelveli district) as mentioned in the text about Nayak period architecture.

5. Who built the Vaikuntha Perumal Temple?

a) Mahendravarman b) Narasimhavarman c) Rajasimha d) Rajaraja II

Answer: Nandivarman 2

Explanation: The Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchipuram was built by Nandivarman 2 as stated in the chapter text.

2. Fill in the Blanks

1. _____ was the first rock-cut cave temple built by the Pallava king Mahendravarman.

Answer: Mandagapattu temple

2. The early Chola architecture followed the style of _____.

Answer: Sembian Mahadevi

3. The most celebrated mandapam in Madurai Meenakshiamman temple is the _____.

Answer: Pudumandapam

4. Later Chola period was known for beautiful _____.

Answer: gopurams

5. Vijayanagar period's unique feature is the _____.

Answer: mandapam

3. Match the following

3. Match the Following

1. Seven Pagodas	a) Madurai
2. Rathi mandapam	b) Darasuram
3. Iravatheswara temple	c) Tirukkurungudi
4. Adinatha Temple	d) Shore temple
5. Pudumandapam	e) Azhwar Tirunagari

Answers: 1-d, 2-c, 3-b, 4-e, 5-a

4. Find out the wrong pair / pairs

4. Find out the wrong pair / pairs:

1. Krishnapuram Temple – Tirunelveli 2. Kudalazhagar Temple – Azhwar Tirunagari 3. Sethupathis – Feudatories of Madurai Nayaks 4. Jalagandeshwara temple – Vellore

Answer: 2. Kudalazhagar Temple – Azhwar Tirunagari

Explanation: According to the text, Kudalazhagar Temple is at Madurai, not Azhwar Tirunagari.

2. Assertion and Reason

2. Assertion (A): The predominance of corridors of Rameswaram Temple is striking. Reason (R): The Temple has the largest set of corridors in the world.

a) R is not the correct explanation of A b) R is the correct explanation of A c) A is correct but R is wrong d) Both A and R are wrong

Answer: b) R is the correct explanation of A

Explanation: The chapter states that "It is claimed that this temple has the longest set of corridors in the world" which explains why the predominance of corridors is striking.

3. Find out the odd one out

3. Find out the odd one out: Srivilliputhur, Azhaharkoil, Srirangam, Kanchipuram, Tiruvannamalai.

Answer: Kanchipuram

Explanation: All others are mentioned together in the context of Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings, while Kanchipuram is mentioned separately.

4. Name the epoch of the following

4. Name the epoch of the following:

a) AD 600 to 850 b) AD 850 to 1100 c) AD 1100 to 1350 d) AD 1350 to 1600

Answer:

a) AD 600 to 850 – The Pallava Epoch

b) AD 850 to 1100 – Early Chola Epoch

c) AD 1100 to 1350 – Later Chola Epoch

d) AD 1350 to 1600 – Vijayanagara / Nayak Epoch

5. Find out the correct statement/s

5. Find out the correct statement/s:

1) The Arjuna's Penance is carved out of a granite boulder.

2) Meenakshi Amman temple in Madurai represents Pallava's architectural style.

3) The cave temple at Pillayarpatti is a contribution of Later Pandyas.

4) The Sethupathis as feudatories of Madurai Nayaks contributed to Madurai Meenakshiamman Temple.

Answer: Statements 1 and 3 are correct.

Explanation: The Arjuna's Penance is carved on the face of a granite boulder. The cave temple at Pillayarpatti belongs to Later Pandyas of the Thirteenth century.

5. State true or false

1. Rajasimha built the Kanchi Kailasanatha temple.

Answer: True

2. Early Pandyas were the contemporaries of Later Cholas.

Answer: False

Explanation: Early Pandyas were the contemporaries of the Pallavas, not Later Cholas.

3. Rock-cut and structural temples are significant parts of the Pandya architecture.

Answer: True

4. Brihadeeshwara temple was built by Rajendra Chola.

Answer: True

Explanation: The Brihadeeshwara temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram was built by Rajendra Chola.

5. Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings are seen at temple at Dadapuram.

Answer: False

Explanation: Dadapuram temple is mentioned in context of Early Chola epoch, not for Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings.

6. Give short answers

1. Write a note on Pancha Pandava Rathas.

Answer: The Tamil Dravida tradition is exemplified by rock-cut monuments such as Pancha Pandava Rathas, namely Draupadi ratha, Dharmaraja ratha, Bheema ratha, Arjuna ratha and Nagula-Sahadeva ratha. The outer walls of the rathas, especially of Arjuna, Bhima and Dharmaraja, are decorated with niches and motifs. The niches have the sculptures of gods, goddesses, monarchs and scenes from mythology.

2. Throw light on the paintings of Sittanavasal.

Answer: Sittanavasal was a residential cave of the Jain monks. They painted the walls with fresco painting. Among the surviving paintings, the lotus pond is notable for its excellent execution of colours and exposition of the scene. The image of lotus flowers, leaves spread all over the pond, animals, elephants, buffaloes, swans and a man who plucks the flowers look brilliant. The Sittanavasal paintings have similarities with the Ajantha paintings.

3. Point out the special features of Thanjavur Big temple.

Answer: The 216 feet vimana is notable as it is one among the tallest man-made shikaras of the world. Due to its massive height, the shikara is called the Dakshina Meru. The huge bull statue (Nandi) measures about 16 feet long and 13 feet height and is carved out of a single rock. The magnificent Thanjavur Big Temple dedicated to Siva, completed around AD 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of Rajaraja's time.

4. Highlight the striking features of Rameswaram Temple.

Answer: The predominance of corridors is striking in Rameswaram temple. It is claimed that this temple has the longest set of corridors in the world. The temple has three sets of corridors. The outer set has a height of almost 7 metres and stretches for about 120 metres in eastern and western directions. The corridors to the north and south are about 195 metres in length. The outer corridor has over 1200 pillars, many decorated with ornate carvings.

7. Answer the following in detail

1. The Pallava epoch witnessed a transition from rock-cut to free standing temples. Explain.

Answer: The Pallava epoch witnessed a transition from rock-cut to free-standing temples. Initially, rock-cut temples were built by carving a rock to the required design. Mahendravarman was a pioneer in rock-cut architecture, building Mandagapattu temple as the first rock-cut temple. All cave temples have simple sanctum cut on the rear side with a frontage-projecting mandapa. This cave architecture reached its decadent phase after AD 700 and gave way to large structural temples because structural temples provided wider scope to sculptors. The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, built by Narasimhavarman 2, became the oldest structural temple in South India, built using blocks of rock instead of a whole block.

2. Discuss how the architecture of Vijayanagara and Nayak period was different from the one of Pallavas and Later Cholas.

Answer: During the Vijayanagara epoch, a new form of construction emerged - the mandapam where gods are carried annually. The main features include decorated mandapas, ornamental pillars, life-size images, gopuras, prakaras, music pillars, floral works and stone windows. Tanks are attached to temples with massive gopurams from four directions. The pillars are more decorative with monolithic gigantic yazhi pillars, horse pillars with life-size portraits. Musical pillars were peculiar features. The 1000-pillar mandapam of Meenakshi-Sundareswarar temple and Pudumandapam at Madurai are examples. This differs from Pallava period's sculptural rocks and Later Chola period's beautiful gopurams, representing evolution in architectural style and complexity.

8. Higher Order Thinking

1. Dravidian architecture is of indigenous origin - Explain.

Answer: Dravidian architecture is of indigenous origin, meaning it developed naturally from local traditions rather than foreign influences. It advanced over time through a process of evolution. The earliest examples of Tamil Dravidian architectural tradition were the seventh century rock-cut shrines at Mahabalipuram. The absence of monuments prior to the seventh century is attributed to temples being built in wood, which were destroyed by natural forces. This indigenous architecture evolved through five distinct stages from Pallava epoch to modern period, each building upon previous traditions while developing unique characteristics.

2. Temple art was at its best during the Nayak Period - Elucidate.

Answer: Temple art reached its pinnacle during the Nayak period with elaborate decorative features. The main characteristics included decorated mandapas, ornamental pillars, life-size images, gopuras, prakaras, music pillars, floral works and stone windows. Musical pillars were a peculiar feature of this time. There was increased use of major sculptured figures and relief sculptures. The pillars were more decorative than previous periods with monolithic gigantic yazhi pillars and horse pillars featuring life-size portraits of mythological and royal family members. The 1000-pillar mandapam of Meenakshi-Sundareswarar temple and Pudumandapam at Madurai exemplify the architectural excellence. Windows were carved on walls of sanctums and mandapams, showing the sophistication of Nayak period temple art.

📝 Summary

1. Dravidian architecture in Tamil Nadu evolved through five stages from 600 CE to modern times, beginning with the Pallava Epoch (600-850 CE) and progressing through Early Chola, Later Chola, Vijayanagara/Nayak, and Modern epochs.
2. The Pallava period marked a crucial transition from rock-cut temples to free-standing structural temples, with Mahendravarman pioneering rock-cut architecture at Mandagapattu temple and later rulers building the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram.
3. Mahabalipuram represents the pinnacle of Pallava architecture, featuring the oldest structural temple in South India, the famous Pancha Pandava Rathas, and the magnificent Arjuna's Penance relief measuring 100 feet long by 45 feet high.
4. The Mamallapuram monuments and temples, including the Shore Temple complex, were recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 for their outstanding cultural significance.
5. Early Pandyas were contemporaries of the Pallavas and created over fifty cave temples dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Brahma, with unique features like deities installed in sanctums and Siva lingams carved from mother rock.