Jainism Buddhism And Ajivika Philosophy In Tamil Nadu

Class 7 | Social Science — History | Unit 3

Class 7 Unit 3 History

Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivika Philosophy in Tamil Nadu

Learning Objectives

To know the sources and literature of heterodox religious sects: Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivikam

To gain knowledge of the teachings of Mahavira, Buddha and Gosala, the founder of Ajivika sect.

To acquaint ourselves with the monuments of the above-mentioned religious sects in Tamil Nadu.

Introduction

During the Sixth century Before Christ (Before the Common Era) according to the Bigha Nitaya (an ancient Buddhist tract), as many as 62 different philosophical and religious schools flourished in India. However, among these numerous sects, only the Ajivikas survived till the late medieval times. But Jainism and Buddhism continued to flourish until the modern times. Buddha and Mahavira, the founders of these two faiths, based their ethical teachings against the sacrificial cult of the Vedic religion. Their teachings were preserved and passed on through monks, who were drawn from various social groups.

Sources and Literature: Jainism

Mahavira's preaching was orally transmitted by his disciples over the course of about one thousand years. In the early period of Jainism, monks strictly followed the five great vows of Jainism. Even religious scriptures were considered possessions and therefore knowledge of the religion was never documented. Two hundred years after the attainment of nirvana (death) of Mahavira, Jain scholars attempted to codify the canon by convening an assembly at Pataliputra. It was the first Jain council to debate the issue, but it ended as a failure because the council could not arrive at a unanimous decision in defining the canon. A second council held at Vallabhi, in the Fifth century Anno Domini (Common Era) was, however, successful in resolving the differences. This enabled the scholars of the time to explain the principles of Jainism with certainty. Also, over time, many learned monks, older in age and rich in wisdom, had compiled commentaries on various topics pertaining to the Jain religion. Around 500 Anno Domini (Common Era) the Jain acharyas (teachers) realised that it was extremely difficult to keep memorising the entire Jain literature complied by the many scholars of the past and present. In fact, significant knowledge was already lost and the rest was tampered with modifications. Hence, they decided to document the Jain literature as known to them.

Five Great Vows of Jainism:

1. Non-violence (Ahimsa);

2. Truth (Satya);

3. Non-stealing – (Achaurya);

4. Celibacy / Chastity – (Brahmacharya);

5. Non-possession – (Aparigraha).

A major split occurred in Jainism (First century Before Christ / Before the Common Era), giving rise to two major sects, namely Digambaras and Swetambaras. Both the Digambaras and the Swetambaras generally acknowledge the Agama Sutras to be their early literature, while they do differ with regard to their content and interpretation.

Jain Literature

Jain literature is generally classified into two major categories.

1. Agama Sutras

Agama Sutras consists of many sacred books of the Jain religion. They have been written in the Ardha-magadhi Prakrit language. Containing the direct preaching of Mahavira, consisting of 12 texts, they were originally compiled by immediate disciples of Mahavira. The Twelfth Agama Sutra is said to have been lost.

2. Non - Agama Literature

Non - Agama literature includes commentary and explanation of Agama Sutras, and independent works, compiled by ascetics and scholars. They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Tamil, German and English. Recognition was given to 84 books, and among them, there are 41 sutras, 12 commentaries and one Maha Bhasya or great commentary. The 41 sutras include 11 Angas (scriptures) followed by Swetambaras, 12 Upangas (instructions manuals), five Chedas (rules of conduct for the monks), five Mulas (basic doctrine of Jainism) and eight miscellaneous works, such as Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu. It is believed that the Panchatantra has a great amount of Jain influence.

The Jainacharitha of Kalpa Sutra is a Jain text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha, founder of Jainism as well as the first Tirthankara, and Mahavira, the last and the 24th Tirthankara. This work is ascribed to Bhadrabahu, who along with Chandragupta Maurya migrated to Mysore (about 296 Before Christ / Before the Common Era) and settled there.

Tirthankaras are those who have attained nirvana and made a passage from this world to the next.

In addition to these, we have some Jain texts composed in Indian vernacular languages such as Hindi, Tamil and Kannada. Jivaka Chintamani, a Tamil epic poem, is a good example, composed in the tradition of Sangam literature by a Jain saint named Tiruthakkathevar. It narrates the life of a pious king who rose to prominence by his own merit only to become an ascetic in the end. Another scholarly work in Tamil, Naladiyar, is also attributed to a Jain monk. Thirukkural was composed by Tiruvalluvar, believed to be a Jain scholar.

Jains in Tamil Nadu

There is a clear evidence of the movements of the Jains from Karnataka to the Kongu region (Salem, Erode and Coimbatore areas), to the Kaveri Delta (Tiruchirapalli) southwards into Pudukkottai region (Sittannavasal) and finally into the Pandya kingdom (Madurai, Ramanathapuram and Tirunelveli districts). Tamils broadly come under Digambara sect. It is believed that the Kalabhras were the patrons of Jainism.

The Sittanavasal Cave Temple

Sittanavasal cave in Pudukkottai district is located on a prominent rock that stands 70 meter above the ground. It has a natural cavern, known as Eladipattam, at one end, and a rock-cut cave temple at the other. Behind the fenced cavern, there are 17 rock beds marked on the floor. The stone berths aligned in rows are believed to have served as a Jain shelter. The largest of these ascetic beds contains a Tamil-Brahmi inscription that dates to the 2nd century Before Christ (Before the Common Era). There are more inscriptions in Tamil from the 8th century Anno Domini (Common Era) bearing the names of monks. It is believed that they should have spent their lives in isolation here. The Sittanavasal cave temple, named Arivar Koil, lies on the west off the hillock. The facade of the temple is simple, with four rock-cut columns. Constructed in the early Pandya period, in the Seventh century Anno Domini (Common Era) it has a hall in the front called the Ardha-mandapam and a smaller cell at the rear, which is the garbha graha (sanctum sanctorum). The murals in the temple resemble the frescoes of the famous Ajanta caves. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) took over the caves only in 1958. Thereafter it took two decades to cover the cave and regulate the entry of visitors. There are the bas-relief figures of Tirthankaras on the left wall of the hall and acharyas on the right before one enters the inner chamber, the sanctum sanctorum.

Jains in Kanchipuram (Tiruparuttikunram)

Jainism flourished during the Pallava reign. In his writings, Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang has mentioned about the presence of a large number of Buddhists and Jains during his visit to the Pallava country in Seventh century Anno Domini (Common Era). Most of the Pallava rulers were Jains. Mahendravarman was a Jain initially. The two Jain temples in Kanchipuram are Trilokyanatha Jinaswamy Temple at Tiruparuttikunram, on the banks of the river Palar, and the Chandra Prabha temple dedicated to the Tirtankara named Chandraprabha. The architecture of these temples is in Pallava style, but it has deteriorated in due course of time. During the Vijayanagar rule (1387), Irugappa, a disciple of Jaina-muni Pushpasena; and a minister of Vijayanagar King Harihara 2 (From 1377 To 1404), expanded the Trilokyanatha Temple by adding the Sangeetha mandapa. The grand murals were added only at this time. Mural paintings in the temples show scenes from the lives of Tirtankaras. Unfortunately the paintings of the Trilokyanatha temple at Tiruparuttikunram have been ruined by over-painting done during renovation. There is rich inscriptional evidence inside the second shrine, the Trikuda Basti, containing information on the development of the temple, and the contributions of various donors over the centuries. In the Kanchipuram district, apart from Tiruparuttikunram, Jain vestiges have been found over the years in many villages across the state.

The total population of Jains in Tamil Nadu is 83,359 or 0.12 per cent of the population as per the 2011 census.

Kazhugumalai Jain Rock-Cut Temple

The 8th century Kazhugumalai temple in Kovilpatti taluk in Thoothukudi district marks the revival of Jainism in Tamil Nadu. This cave temple was built by King Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan of the Pandyan kingdom. Polished rock-cut cave beds, popularly known as Panchavar Padukkai at Kazhugumalai cavern host the figures of not only the Tirtankaras but also the figures of yakshas and yakshis (Male and Female attendants respectively).

Jain Temples in other parts of Tamil Nadu

Vellore

Fourteen Jain monk beds, dating back to the 5th century Anno Domini (Common Era) have been excavated inside three caverns on top of a hill in Vellore district. The beds are found at the Bhairavamalai in Latheri, Katpadi taluk, Vellore district. Of the three caverns, two of them house beds. One houses four rock beds while the other houses one bed. Unlike many rock beds found elsewhere, these ones have no head-rests.

Tirumalai

Tirumalai is a Jain temple in a cave complex located near Arni town in Tiruvannamalai district in Tamil Nadu. The complex, dated to the Twelfth century Anno Domini (Common Era) includes three Jain caves, two Jain temples and a 16-meter-high sculpture of Neminatha, the Twenty second Tirthankara. This image of Neminatha is considered to be the tallest Jain image in Tamil Nadu.

Madurai

There are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions and over 100 sculptures in and around Madurai. The Kizha Kuyil Kudi is a striking example. This hillock is 12 kilometres west of Madurai, on the Madurai–Theni Highway. The sculptures are assigned to the period of Parantaka Veera Narayana Pandyan who ruled from Anno Domini (Common Era) From 860 to 900. There are eight sculptures. The images of Rishab Nath or Adinath, Mahavira, Parshvanath and Bahubali are found here.

Contribution to Education

Jaina monasteries and temples also served as seats of learning. Education was imparted in these institutions to the people irrespective of caste and creed. The Jainas propagated their doctrines and proved to be a potential media of mass education. The Bhairavamalai we have mentioned earlier is situated near a small village called Kukkara Palli. 'Palli' is an educational centre of Jains and villages bearing the suffix of Palli are common in many places in Tamil Nadu. The educational institutions had libraries attached to them. Several books were written by the preachers of Jainism, highlighting the important aspects of Jainism. The permission for women to enter into the order provided an impetus to the spread of education among women.

Buddhism

Buddha's original name, Siddhartha Sakya-muni Gautama, if translated into English, would mean Gautama who belongs to the Sakya tribe and who has reached the goal of perfection. Gautama Buddha was a contemporary of Mahavira. His father ruled the tribe of Sakya in a region near the present-day Nepal. Gautama found that he had nothing to learn from the teachers of the old religions. The religions proclaimed that the only way to salvation was through living the life of an ascetic. But despite practicing asceticism, Gautama could not arrive anywhere near the truth. And one night, as he sat under a bodhi-tree struggling with his doubt and his loneliness, a great peace descended on him. He was no longer Gautama, the sceptic, but became Buddha, the Enlightened. At last, he had succeeded in understanding the great mystery of human suffering, its causes and its cure. Asserting that both the king (passion for pleasures) and the hermit (self-mortification) were wrong, he discovered the middle path. The middle path is based on 'an eight-fold path' of Right understanding, Right thought, Right speech, Right action, Right livelihood, Right effort, Right mindfulness, Right concentration. Buddha taught not the glory of God but the power of love. He held the view that all men are born to an 'equality of rights'. He undertook long journeys and carried his message far and wide. Buddha preached his teachings in Prakrit. His four noble truths are as follows:

1. Life includes pain, getting old, disease, and ultimately death.

2. Suffering is caused by craving and aversion.

3. Suffering can be overcome and happiness attained.

4. True happiness and contentment are possible, if one pursues the eight-fold path.

Buddhist Literature

Buddha's teachings for a long time were transmitted through the memory of teachers and disciples. They were reduced to writing by 80 Before Christ (Before the Common Era) and were written in the Pali language. The Pali canon Tripitaka has three divisions, also known as the Threefold Basket. They include Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules of the order of Buddhist monks, which must be observed for achieving purity of conduct.

Sutta Pitaka lays down the principles of religion by citing discourses as evidence. Abhidhamma Pitaka is the latest of the Tripitaka. It deals with ethics, philosophy and meta-physics. Other prominent canonical literary works in Buddhism include:

Jatakas – various stories of the lives of the Buddha found in Buddhist literature. Buddhavamsa – A legend in verse, containing a narration of the life and activities of the 24 Buddhas who are believed to have preceded Gautama. Apart from the above canonical literature, there is a long series of non-canonical literature in Pali. They include:

• Milindapanha – which means 'questions of Milinda'. It contains a dialogue between Milinda, the Graeco-Bactrian king, and the monk Nagasena over some problems that faced Buddhism. It was originally written in Sanskrit.

• The two famous Ceylonese chronicles are Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa. The former deals with the royal dynasties of the Indian subcontinent including Sri Lanka, while the latter deals with the arrival of the Buddha's teachings and preachers in Sri Lanka.

• Buddhagosha's Visuddhimagga is a later work. He is the first Buddhist commentator.

• Sanskrit literature became prominent in Buddhism with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism. However, some of the Sanskritic works were produced by the Hinayana school as well. Buddhacharita, written by Asvaghosa, is an epic style Sanskrit work. It tells the life history of Gautama Buddha.

Buddhism in Tamizhakam

Buddhism is believed to have spread to the Tamil country by the Ceylonese missionaries. The evidence in support of this is some monuments of the Pandya country, which are assigned to the Third century Before Christ (before the Common Era). The monuments are in caverns known as Pancha Pandava Malai. Buddhism seems to have flourished and co-existed peacefully with Jainism, Ajivikam and also with various sects of Hinduism. Since the time of Bhakti Movement, Buddhism came to be challenged by its exponents and began to lose royal patronage. The Thevaram hymns of Saiva saints and the Nalayira Divyaprabandam of Vaishnava Azhwars provided evidence to the challenges Buddhism faced in Tamil country. When Hieun Tsang, the Chinese traveller, visited south India in the Seventh century, Buddhism was almost on the decline. But contrary to popular perception, the Buddhism did not disappear completely. The presence of Virasozhiyam (a Eleventh century Later Chola period grammar text), composed by a Buddhist and the discovery of Thirteenth century Buddhist bronzes in Nagapattinam testify to the presence of Buddhism in later periods. The sculptures of Buddha in Thiyaganur village in Salem district strengthen this conclusion. Though Buddhism faced challenges from Saiva and Vaishnava sects from the Pallava period onwards. One of the exceptions was Nagapattinam, which was supported by Chola kings, not for religious but for political reasons. Chudamani Vihara of Nagapattinam was constructed by the Srivijaya king with the patronage of Rajaraja Chola. This vihara has been since destroyed. The Tamil epic, Manimekalai, written by Kulavanigan Sithalai Sattanar, is considered a typical representation of Tamil Buddhism. Sattanar indigenised Buddhism into Tamil Buddhism by communicating a large set of Buddhist terms in Tamil, as translations from Sanskrit and Pali. There is a record about a Buddhist monk named Vajrabodhi, who was skilled in tantric rituals, but this monk left the Pallava court for China. Mahendravarman's Mattavilāsa Prahasana describes Buddhism as a religion in decay. In the field of education, Buddhist Sanghas and Viharas served as centres of education. Students from various parts of the world came here to receive education. Nalanda, Taxila and Vikramshila gained reputation as great educational centres. They were originally Buddhist Viharas. Students from Tibet and China were influenced by Buddhism and they took effective steps to spread Buddhism.

A Vihara in Sanskrit means 'dwelling' or 'house'. Originally, viharas were dwelling places used by wandering monks during the rainy season. Later they transformed into centres of learning through the donations of wealthy lay Buddhists. Royal patronage allowed pre-Muslim India to become a land of many viharas that imparted university education and were treasure troves of sacred texts. Many viharas, such as Nalanda were world famous.

Viharas

Excavations of Buddhist Vihara and a temple at Kaveripoompattinam and hundreds of stone and bronze sculptures by Archaeological Survey of India from over 125 sites have proved the spread of the religion in the state. A 1.03 metre Buddha statue in 'padmasana' pose in remote Tirunattiyattankudi village in Tiruvarur district was unearthed when digging a tank in a field.

3. Ajivika Philosophy

The Ajivikas believed in the doctrine of karma, transmigration of the soul and determinism. The head of Ajivika sect was Gosala Mankhaliputta. The Ajivikas practiced asceticism of a severe type. The Ajivika religious order and school of philosophy is known from the Vedic hymns, the Brahmanas, the Aryankas and other ancient Sanskrit compilations and treatises of the pre-Jaina and pre-Buddhist age. Gosala's ideas live on in other religions, though no Ajivika literature has survived. Gosala was closely associated with Mahavira for six years and then they parted company. The Mauryan emperor Asoka and his grandson Dasaratha patronised the Ajivikas. After the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, the sect declined in northern India, but had by then spread into southern India where it continued to exist for many centuries. Throughout history, Ajivikas had to face persecution everywhere. Village communities under Pallavas, Cholas and Hoysalas imposed special taxes on them. Despite such obstacles, Ajivikas continued to have influence along the Palar river in the modern states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Vellore, Kanchipuram and Tiruvallur districts) till about the 14th century. In the end, they seemed to have been absorbed into Vaishnavism.

Summary

Sources and literature for study of Jainism are highlighted. Presence of Jains in the Tamil country is examined. Jain monuments and art in Tamizhakam, in particular Sittanavasal and Kazhugumalai are illustrated. The Jain contribution to education through 'Palli' is explained. Buddhist teachings are analysed. Buddhism in the Tamil country is explored. Buddhist legacy in Tamizhakam is discussed. The essence of Ajivika philosophy and its presence in Tamil Nadu is detailed.

References

1. Glimpses of World Religions: Buddhism, Jaico, 2004.

2. Henry Thomas, Dana Lee Thomas, Living Biographies of Great Religious Leaders, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996.

3. Abraham Early, Gem in the Lotus, Penguin, 2002.

4. P.C. Alexander, Buddhism in Kerala, Annamalai University, 1949.

5. Times of India, 21 July 2014.

6. The Hindu, 7 September 2014.

Glossary

Heterodox (adj) not conforming to orthodox beliefs, especially religious ones, unorthodox Canon (n) a rule, an accepted principle Unanimous (adj) all sharing the same view Ascetic (n) monk, hermit Deteriorate (v) to grow worse Vestiges (n) things left behind, remains, traces Cavern (n) a large deep underground cave Hillock (n) small hill, mound Façade (n) the front of a building Frescoes (n) paintings done in water colour on a wall or ceiling Mural (n) a large picture painted on a wall Impetus (n) motivation, stimulus Salvation (n) saving from harm, ruin or loss Sceptic (n) someone who habitually doubts accepted beliefs Craving (n) a strong desire Persecution (n) unfair treatment of a person or a group, especially because of their religious or political beliefs

Evaluation

Exercise 1. Choose the correct answer

1. Where was the first Jain Council held to codify the Jaina canon?

a) Pataliputra b) Vallabhi c) Mathura d) Kanchipuram

2. In which language was Agama sutras written?

a) Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit b) Hindi c) Sanskrit d) Pali

3. Which of the following was patronised by the Kalabhras?

a) Buddhism b) Jainism c) Ajivikas d) Hinduism

4. Where are the Rock beds found with no head-rests?

a) Vellore b) Kanchipuram c) Sittanavasal d) Madurai

5. Who is believed to have built the Kazhugumalai Rock-Cut Temple?

a) Mahendra Varman b) Parantaka Nedunchadayan c) Parantaka Veera Narayana Pandyan d) Harihara Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks

1. The image of is considered to be the tallest Jain image in Tamil Nadu.

2. Buddhacharita was written by

3. Chinese traveller Huein Tsang visited Pallava country in century.

4. describes Buddhism as a religion in decay.

5. The Mauryan emperor Asoka and his grandson Dasarata patronised

Exercise 3. Match the following

1. Kalpa sutra
2. Jivaka Chintamani
3. Neminatha
4. Milinda Panha
5. Kizha Kuyil Kudi

Exercise 4. Answer the following

1. Find out the odd one: Tiruparuttikunram, Kizha Kuyil Kudi, Kazhugumalai, Nagapattinam, Sittanavasal.

2. Assertion (A): Gautama found that he had nothing to learn from the teachers of the old religions.
Reason (R): The religions proclaimed that the only way to salvation was through living the life of an ascetic.

a) A is correct. R is the correct explanation of A. b) A is correct. R is not the correct explanation of A. c) Both A and R are wrong. d) A is wrong. But R is correct.

3. Find out the correct statement/s

1) During the Sixth century Before Christ, as many as 62 religious schools flourished in India.
2) 'Palli' is an educational centre of Buddhists.
3) Royal patronage allowed pre-Muslim India to become a land of viharas.
4) The Ajivikas continued to exist till Fifteenth century.

a) 1) and 3) are correct. b) 1), 2) and 4) are correct. c) 1) and 2) are correct. d) 2), 3) and 4) are correct.

4. Find out the wrong pair/s

1. Parshvanatha – Twenty Second Tirthankara
2. Mahabashya – the Ceylonese Chronicle
3. Visuddhimagga – Buddhagosha
4. Buddha – Eight-fold Path

Exercise 5. True or False 1. The Twelfth Agama Sutra is said to have been lost. 2. Throughout history, Ajivikas had to face persecution everywhere. 3. Education was imparted in institutions of Jains irrespective of caste and creed. 4. Nalanda, Taxila and Vikramashila gained reputation as pilgrim centres. 5. Buddhism faced challenges from Saiva and Vaishnava sects from the Chola period onwards. Exercise 6. Answer the following

1. Make a list of the Five Great Vows of Jainism.

2. What are the four noble truths of Buddha?

3. Explain the three divisions of Tripitaka.

4. Highlight the importance of Sittanavasal.

Exercise 7. Answer in detail

1. Enumerate the sources of study for Jainism and Buddhism.

2. Give an account of relics of Jainism and Buddhism that have come to light in Tamil Nadu.

3. Discuss the essence of Ajivika philosophy and its presence in Tamil Nadu.

Exercise 8. Higher Order Thinking

1. Analyse the commonalities and differences between heterodox religions and Vedic religion.

2. Why did these heterodox religions fail to become mainstream religion in India?

Exercise 9. Activity

Students to visit district museums and places, where excavated Buddhists and Jain relics are on display.

ICT CORNER - BUDDHISM

To know and learn about the Buddhism through this act

PROCEDURE:

Step 1: Open the Browser and type the Uniform Resource Locator (Or Scan the Quick Response Code).

Step 2: Story of Buddha page will appear on the screen.

Step 3: Click on the Image to know about the story of Buddha.

Step 4: Click on the ebook below the image to download the Portable Document Format.

Web URL: BUDDHISM
http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/storybuddha.htm

Book-back Exercises — Questions & Answers

Answers generated strictly from the Samacheer Kalvi textbook content. Attempt each question first, then click "Show Answer" to check.

1. Choose the correct answer:

1. Where was the first Jain Council held to codify the Jaina canon?

a) Pataliputra b) Vallabhi c) Mathura d) Kanchipuram

Answer: a) Pataliputra

Explanation: Two hundred years after the attainment of nirvana of Mahavira, Jain scholars attempted to codify the canon by convening an assembly at Pataliputra.

2. In which language was Agama sutras written?

a) Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit b) Hindi c) Sanskrit d) Pali

Answer: a) Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit

Explanation: Agama Sutras have been written in the Ardha-magadhi Prakrit language.

3. Which of the following was patronised by the Kalabhras?

a) Buddhism b) Jainism c) Ajivikas d) Hinduism

Answer: b) Jainism

Explanation: It is believed that the Kalabhras were the patrons of Jainism.

4. Where are the Rock beds found with no head-rests?

a) Vellore b) Kanchipuram c) Sittanavasal d) Madurai

Answer: a) Vellore

Explanation: Fourteen Jain monk beds dating back to the 5th century AD have been excavated in Vellore district, and unlike many rock beds found elsewhere, these ones have no head-rests.

5. Who is believed to have built the Kalugumalai Rock-Cut Temple?

a) Mahendra Varman b) Parantaka Nedunchadayan c) Parantaka Veera Narayana Pandyan d) Harihara

Answer: b) Parantaka Nedunchadayan

Explanation: The 8th century Kazhugumalai temple was built by King Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan of the Pandyan kingdom.

2. Fill in the blanks:

1. The image of _____ is considered to be the tallest Jain image in Tamil Nadu.

Answer: Neminatha

2. Buddhacharita was written by _____.

Answer: Asvaghosa

3. Chinese traveller Huein Tsang visited Pallava country in _____ century.

Answer: Seventh

4. _____ describes Buddhism as a religion in decay.

Answer: Mahendravarman's Mattavilāsa Prahasana

5. The Mauryan emperor Asoka and his grandson Dasarata patronised _____.

Answer: Ajivikas

3. Match the Following

3. Match the Following

Column A	Column B
1. Kalpa sutra	a) Tiruthakkathevar
2. Jivaka Chintamani	b) Madurai
3. Neminatha	c) Nagasena
4. Milinda Panha	d) Bhadrabahu
5. Kizha Kuyil Kudi	e) Twenty Second Tirthankara

Answers: 1-d, 2-a, 3-e, 4-c, 5-b

4. Answer the following:

1. Find out the odd one: Tiruparuttikunram, Kizha Kuyil Kudi, Kazhugumalai, Nagapattinam, Sittanavasal.

Answer: Nagapattinam is the odd one as it is a Buddhist centre, while all others are Jain centres.

2. Assertion (A): Gautama found that he had nothing to learn from the teachers of the old religions. Reason (R): The religions proclaimed that the only way to salvation was through living the life of an ascetic.

a) A is correct. R is the correct explanation of A. b) A is correct. R is not the correct explanation of A. c) Both A and R are wrong. d) A is wrong. But R is correct.

Answer: a) A is correct. R is the correct explanation of A.

Explanation: Gautama found nothing to learn from old religions because they only proclaimed ascetic life as the path to salvation, but despite practicing asceticism, he could not arrive anywhere near the truth.

3. Find out the correct statement/s: 1) During the Sixth century Before Christ, as many as 62 religious schools flourished in India. 2) 'Palli' is an educational centre of Buddhists. 3) Royal patronage allowed pre-Muslim India to become a land of vihars. 4) The Ajivikas continued to exist till Fifteenth century.

a) 1) and 3) are correct. b) 1), 2) and 4) are correct. c) 1) and 2) are correct. d) 2), 3) and 4) are correct.

Answer: a) 1) and 3) are correct.

Explanation: Statement 1 is correct as 62 schools flourished in the sixth century BC. Statement 3 is correct as royal patronage made India a land of viharas. Statement 2 is wrong as 'Palli' is a Jain educational centre, and statement 4 is wrong as Ajivikas continued till 14th century.

4. Find out the wrong pair/s: 1. Parshvanatha – Twenty Second Tirthankara 2. Mahabashya – the Ceylonese Chroniclei 3. Visuddhimagga – Buddhagosha 4. Buddha – Eight-fold Path

Answer: 1. Parshvanatha – Twenty Second Tirthankara and 2. Mahabashya – the Ceylonese Chronicle are wrong pairs.

5. True or False:

1. The Twelfth Agama Sutra is said to have been lost.

Answer: True

2. Throughout history, Ajivikas had to face persecution everywhere.

Answer: True

3. Education was imparted in institutions of Jains irrespective of caste and creed.

Answer: True

4. Nalanda, Taxila and Vikramashila gained reputation as pilgrim centres.

Answer: False

5. Buddhism faced challenges from Saiva and Vaishnava sects from the Chola period onwards.

Answer: False

6. Answer the following:

1. Make a list of the Five Great Vows of Jainism.

Answer: The Five Great Vows of Jainism are: 1. Non-violence (Ahimsa), 2. Truth (Satya), 3. Non-stealing (Achaurya), 4. Celibacy/Chastity (Brahmacharya), 5. Non-possession (Aparigraha).

2. What are the four noble truths of Buddha?

Answer: Buddha's four noble truths are: 1. Life includes pain, getting old, disease, and ultimately death. 2. Suffering is caused by craving and aversion. 3. Suffering can be overcome and happiness attained. 4. True happiness and contentment are possible, if one pursues the eight-fold path.

3. Explain the three divisions of Tripitaka.

Answer: The three divisions of Tripitaka are: Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules of the order of Buddhist monks for achieving purity of conduct. Sutta Pitaka lays down the principles of religion by citing discourses as evidence. Abhidhamma Pitaka is the latest division dealing with ethics, philosophy and meta-physics.

4. Highlight the importance of Sittanavasal.

Answer: Sittanavasal cave in Pudukkottai district has 17 rock beds believed to have served as a Jain shelter. It contains Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions dating to 2nd century BC and Tamil inscriptions from 8th century AD. The cave temple Arivar Koil was constructed in the 7th century AD with murals resembling Ajanta cave frescoes.

7. Answer in detail:

1. Enumerate the sources of study for Jainism and Buddhism.

Answer: Jainism sources include Agama Sutras consisting of 12 texts in Ardha-magadhi Prakrit containing Mahavira's direct preaching, and Non-Agama literature with commentaries in various languages. Buddhism sources include Tripitaka with three divisions - Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka written in Pali language. Other Buddhist literature includes Jatakas, Buddhavamsa, Milindapanha, Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, and Buddhacharita by Asvaghosa. Both religions preserved teachings orally before documentation and developed extensive literary traditions.

2. Give an account of relics of Jainism and Buddhism that have come to light in Tamil Nadu.

Answer: Jain relics include Sittanavasal cave temple with 17 rock beds and murals, Kazhugumalai rock-cut temple from 8th century, Tirumalai complex with 16-meter Neminatha sculpture, and temples in Kanchipuram. Buddhist relics include excavations at Kaveripoompattinam showing Vihara remains, bronze sculptures from Nagapattinam, and a Buddha statue from Tirunattiyattankudi. Over 125 sites have yielded Buddhist artifacts proving widespread presence of both religions in ancient Tamil Nadu with substantial architectural and sculptural remains.

3. Discuss the essence of Ajivika philosophy and its presence in Tamil Nadu.

Answer: Ajivika philosophy, founded by Gosala Mankhaliputta, believed in karma doctrine, transmigration of soul and determinism. They practiced severe asceticism and were patronized by Mauryan emperor Asoka and his grandson Dasaratha. After Mauryan decline, they spread to southern India and continued for centuries despite facing persecution. Village communities under Pallavas, Cholas and Hoysalas imposed special taxes on them. They maintained influence along Palar river in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu till 14th century before being absorbed into Vaishnavism. Their survival showed remarkable resilience despite continuous challenges.

📝 Summary

1. During the Sixth century BCE, as many as 62 different philosophical and religious schools flourished in India, among which Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivika philosophy were prominent heterodox religious sects that opposed the sacrificial cult of Vedic religion.
2. Jainism is based on five great vows: Non-violence (Ahimsa), Truth (Satya), Non-stealing (Achaurya), Celibacy/Chastity (Brahmacharya), and Non-possession (Aparigraha), as taught by Mahavira whose preaching was orally transmitted for about one thousand years.
3. Two major Jain councils were held - the first at Pataliputra ended in failure, while the second at Vallabhi in the Fifth century CE successfully resolved differences and helped codify the Jain canon, leading to documentation around 500 CE.
4. A major split in Jainism during the First century BCE gave rise to two sects - Digambaras and Swetambaras - both acknowledging Agama Sutras as early literature but differing in content and interpretation.
5. Jain literature is classified into two categories: Agama Sutras (12 sacred texts in Ardha-magadhi Prakrit containing Mahavira's direct preaching) and Non-Agama Literature (commentaries and independent works in various languages including 84 recognized books with 41 sutras and 12 commentaries).