New Religious Ideas And Movements

Class 7 | Social Science — History | Unit 1

Class 7 Unit 1 History

New Religious Ideas and Movements

Learning Objectives

To acquire the knowledge of

• Devotional movement of Azhwars and Nayanmars
• Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara and vishistadvaita of Ramanuja
• Bhakti cult in Northern India and its prominent exponents
• Interaction between Hinduism and Islam, leading to the birth of new cults notably Sufism
• Teachings of Kabir and Guru Nanak
• Impact of Bhakti Movement

Introduction

Medieval India saw an extraordinary production of devotional poetry, which were not restricted to one particular religion but inspired by different religious movements. The exponents of these movements held the view that total devotion (bhakti) to God could save man from the pitfalls of life and earn him salvation. It was also believed that one does not have to go to temples or perform rituals, for God is omnipresent and resides inside every human. The Bhagavad Gita proposed that the path of bhaktimarga (the path of bhakti) is superior to the two other religious approaches, namely, the path of knowledge (jnana) and the path of rituals and good works (karma), providing inspiration to the exponents of Bhakti cult.

Bhakti Movement: The Beginnings

The Bhakti movement, or the resurgence of devotional practices, started in Tamil Nadu around seventh century AD (CE). It included reciting the name of the God or Goddess, singing hymns in their praise, wearing religious marks or carrying identity emblems, and undertaking pilgrimages to sacred places associated with the deity. It emphasised the mutual emotional attachment and love of a devotee towards a personal God and of the God for the devotee. This view was also preached by Sufism, which appeared as a reaction against worldliness of the early Islam. Sufis believed that realisation of God can be achieved only through passionate devotion to God and intense meditation. Sufis were of the view that this type of meditation would enable the devotee to understand the true nature of God. They argued that doing so would liberate the devotee from all worldly bonds and help them become one with God. Several mystical religious movements, in both Hinduism and Islam, had no hesitation to freely include elements of different faiths in their teachings. 'There is only one god, though Hindus and Muslims call him by different names', stated Haridasa.

1. Devotional Movement in Tamizhakam (Azhwars and Nayanmars)

The Azhwars, the Vaishnavite Bhakti sages and the originators of Bhakti cult, and the Nayanmars, the worshipers of Siva or the Saivites, composed devotional hymns in Tamil language, dedicated to their respective gods. Siva-bhakti is associated with Siva's manifestations on earth. Poems to Siva and Vishnu, particularly to Krishna, were composed in Tamil and other South Indian languages such as Kannada and Telugu. These poet-saints criticised caste-based social status and advocated gender equality in order to make it good to stand the onslaught of Buddhism or Jainism. Vishnu-bhakti or Vaishnavism is based on Vishnu's avatars (incarnations), particularly Krishna and Rama.

The 12 Tamil Azhwars are chiefly known for their immortal hymns. Two Azhwars stand out distinctly for their contribution to the promotion of the Bhakti movement. Nammazhwar's fame lies in his 1,102-stanza Tiruvaimozhi. Nathamuni collected the 4,000 poems of Nammazhwar, in the form of Divya Prabandham. Andal, the only female Azhwar, is another. Periyazhwar, who was earlier known as Vishnu Chittar, made lots of songs on Krishna putting himself in the place of mother Yashoda. Periyazhvar is said to have found Andal as a baby in the tulsi garden at Srivilliputhur temple and adopted her. She grew up in the temple town of Srivilliputhur and became known as Andal-she who ruled. The Thiruppavai (The Path to Krishna) and the Nachiyar Thirumozhi (The Sacred Songs of the Lady) are her celebrated works. Her poems expressing her love for Ranganatha, the incarnation of Vishnu worshiped at a temple at Srirangam, are used in Vaishnava wedding ceremonies in Tamil Nadu.

(a) Adi Shankara

Adi Shankara or Shankaracharya (788-820 AD/CE) preached the Advaita philosophy. The essence of this philosophy is that the soul (atma) unites with the universal soul (brahma) through the attainment of knowledge. He set up mathas (mutts), centres of learning and worship, at Badrinath, Puri, Dwarka and Sringeri. These places have become prominent pilgrim centres today. Shankara enthusiastically endeavoured to restore the orthodox Vedic tradition without paying attention to the Bhakti movement of his time. His masterpiece is the commentary on the Brahma-sutra, which is a fundamental text of the Vedanta school. His commentaries on the principal Upanishads are also considered equally important.

(b) Ramanuja

Ramanuja, a 11th century Vaishnava saint, was the most influential thinker of Vaishnavism. His philosophy, known as vishistadvaita, proclaims that the soul retains its identity even after uniting with brahma. After a long pilgrimage, Ramanuja settled in Srirangam. Ramanuja articulated ideas of social equality and condemned caste-based restrictions on entering the temples. He established centres to spread his doctrine of devotion, Srivaishnavism, to God Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi. In the Sixteenth and Seventeenth centuries, Vaishnavism spread across India. The Vadakalai Vaishnavism originally flourished around Kanchipuram, which was a popular centre for Sanskrit learning. Thenkalai Vaishnavism centred on Srirangam. Vadakalai sect focused on Vedic literature, which is written in Sanskrit. The Thenkalai sect stressed the importance of Divya Prabandhams, written by the 12 Azhwars in Tamil.

2. Bhakti Movement in North India

While dealing with the religious movements of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in northern India, one has to keep in mind the two very different attitudes which Hindu religious leaders had towards Islam. One group accepted what was best in Islam; the other adopted a few elements in order to prevent conversion to Islam. Both reacted to Islam, but one was sympathetic while the other was hostile. Kabir and Guru Nanak, and other founders of new sects are included in the first group, while the movement in Bengal, associated with Chaitanya deva, or Chaitanya Mahaprabu, belongs to the latter tendency.

(a) Exponents of Bhakti Movement

It was Ramananda who spread the Bhakti ideology in northern India where it became a mass movement. Vallabhacharya, a Telugu philosopher, built a temple for Lord Krishna on the Govardhan Hills near Mathura. Surdas, a blind poet and musician, was associated with this temple as well as that of Agra. His famous collection of poetry is called Sursagar. Meera Bai, wife of the crown prince of Mewar, was an ardent devotee of Lord Krishna. She was a disciple of Ravidas. Meera Bai gained popularity through her bhajans. Chaitanyadeva popularised Krishna worship through ecstatic songs and dancing that had a profound effect on Vaishnavism in Bengal. In the Sixteenth century, in Tulsidas's Hindi retelling of the story of Rama in the Ramcharitmanas, the sentiment of friendship and loyalty is stressed. Many of those poems continue to be recited and sung often at all-night celebrations. Tukaram, a Seventeenth century saint poet of Maharashtra, is known for his spiritual songs (abangas or kirtanas), devoted to Vitthoba, an avatar of Krishna. There is a Vitthoba / Panduranga temple at Pantharpur or Pandaripuram in Sholapur district, Maharashtra. What is Chaitanyadeva to Bengal is Tukaram to Maharashtra.

3. Sufism in India

The advent of Sufis to India dates back to the Arab conquest of Sind. It gained prominence in the Tenth and Eleventh centuries during the reign of the Delhi Sultans. Sufism adopted many native Indian concepts such as yogic postures, music and dance. Sufism found adherents among both Muslims and Hindus.

Sufism

The word Sufi takes its origin from suf, meaning wool. The Sufis wore course garments made of wool and hence they were called Sufis. Sufism was basically Islamic but was influenced by Hindu and Buddhist (Mahayana) ideas. It rejected the stringent conduct code of the ulemas. Sufis lived in hermitages akin to monasteries and functioned outside society.

Sufis in medieval India were divided into three major orders. They were Chisti, Suhrawardi and Firdausi. Moinuddin Chishti made Chisti order popular in India. He died in Ajmer (1236) and his resting place is in the Ajmer Sharif Dargah in Ajmer, Rajasthan. The best known Sufi sage of the early medieval period was Nizamuddin Auliya of the Chishti order, who had a large number of followers among the ruling class in Delhi. Poet Amir Khusru was one of its distinguished followers. Suhrawardi order was founded by an Iranian Sufi Abdul-Wahid Abu Najib. The Firdausi order was a branch of Suhrawardi order and its activities were confined to Bihar.

4. (a) Kabir

As a Muslim, Kabir came under the influence of Varanasi-based Saint Ramananda. He accepted some Hindu ideas and tried to reconcile Hinduism and Islam. However, it was the Hindus, and particularly those of the lower classes, to whom his message appealed. Kabir believed that God is one and formless, even though different religious sects give him different names and forms. He opposed discrimination on the basis of religion, caste and wealth. He also condemned meaningless rituals. Kabir's verses were composed in Bhojpuri language mixed with Urdu. The Kabir's Granthavali and the Bijak contain collections of Kabir's verses.

(b) Guru Nanak

Early Life

Guru Nanak, born in a village near Lahore in 1469, showed interest in religious discussions with other saints right from his early childhood. His parents were keen to involve him in worldly life. But he was inclined towards spiritualism. He visited many holy places and finally settled in Kartarpur near Lahore. He died there in 1539. To mark the 550th birth anniversary of Guru Nanak, a corridor is constructed by the Indian government that will link the Nanak shrine in Gurdaspur with Gurudwara Darbar Sahib at Kartarpur in Pakistan.

Guru Nanak's Teachings

Guru Nanak preached that God is without form and wanted his followers to practice meditation upon the name of God for peace and ultimate salvation. He is considered the first guru by the Sikhs. Guru Nanak had great contempt for Vedic rituals and caste discriminations. The teachings of Guru Nanak formed the basis of Sikhism, a new religious order, founded in the late Fifteenth century. His and his successors' teachings are collected in the Guru Granth Sahib, which is the holy book of the Sikhs. Guru Nanak's teachings were spread through the group singing of hymns, called kirtan. The devotees gathered in dharmashala's (rest house), which became gurudwaras in course of time.

Guru Nanak nominated his disciple Lehna to succeed him as the guru. Following this precedent, the successors are named by the incumbent Sikh Guru. At the time of Guru Gobind Singh, the custom of pahul (baptism by sweetened water stirred with a dagger) was introduced. Those who got baptised became members of a disciplined brotherhood known as the Khalsa (meaning the pure). The men were given the title Singh (lion). Every member of the Khalsa had to have five distinctive things on his person. These were kesh (uncut hair), kangha (comb), kirpan (dagger), kada (steel bangle) and kachera (underpants). After Guru Gobind Singh, the holy book Guru Granth Sahib is considered the guru and its message is spread by the Khalsa.

5. Impact of the Religious / Bhakti Movement

• Vedic Hinduism was regenerated and thus saved from the onslaught of Islam.
• The Islamic tenets – unity of God and universal brotherhood – emphasised by the saints promoted harmony and peace.
• Bhakti was a movement of the common people; it used the language of the common people for its devotional literature.
• Bhakti movement opened up space for Indian languages to grow. It stimulated literary activity in regional languages.
• What sustained Sanskrit, despite its decline during this period, was the support extended by the rulers of Hindu kingdoms.
• Tamil was the only ancient Indian language remained vibrant during this period. But the ethos of Tamil literature in medieval time had changed. In the classical period, it had secular literature depicting the everyday life, its joys and sorrows, but under the influence of devotional cults, its emphasis shifted to religion and religious literature.
• Caste system and social disparities came to be criticised.

Summary

The Bhakti movement is explained. Azhwars' initiatives followed by Nayanmars in Tamil country are described. Adi Shankarar's advaita philosophy and Ramanujar's vishistadvaita philosophy are explained. The devotional paths of saints, notably Tulsidas and Meera Bai, in northern India and Chaitanyadeva in Bengal are examined. Mutual influence of Islam and Hinduism and birth of Sufism, Sikhism and mystical Hinduism are discussed in brief. Radical versions of Bhakti Movement: Contribution of Kabir and Guru Nanak are detailed. The essential features of Bhakti Movement are highlighted. The impact of the Bhakti Movement on the medieval Indian society is analysed.

References

1. R. Champakalakshmi, Religion, Tradition and Ideology in Pre-Colonial South India, Oxford University Press, 2011.

2. Burton Stein, A History of India, Oxford University Press, 2004.

3. Abraham Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock Throne, Penguin, 1997.

4. https://www.britannica.com

Glossary

Salvation a way of being saved from danger, loss or harm நிவர்த்தி, விமோசனம் Omnipresent present everywhere at the same time எங்கும் நிறைந்திருக்கின்ற Incarnation a living being embodying a deity or spirit அவதாரம் Hostile showing enmity or dislike, unfriendly விரோதமாக, பகைமையுள்ள Prominence importance முக்கியத்துவம் Adherents supporter (of a person, cause or belief) ஆதரவாளர், பின்பற்றுபவர் Stringent severe, harsh கடுமையான, கெடுபிடியான Ulema Islamic scholar trained in Islamic law இஸ்லாமியப் பேரறிஞர் Hermitage the dwelling of persons living in seclusion ஆசிரமம், துறவிவாழிடம் Akin similar ஒத்த இயல்புடைய Dagger short, pointed knife that is sharp on both sides குத்துவாள் குறுவாள் Depicting showing, portraying சித்தரிக்கும், விவரமாக விளக்கும் Disparity a great difference, the state of being unequal வேறுபாடு, சமமற்ற நிலை

Evaluation

Exercise 1. Choose the correct answer

1. Who of the following composed songs on Krishna putting himself in the place of mother Yashoda?

a) Poigaiazhwar b) Periyazhwar c) Nammazhwar d) Andal

2. Who preached the Advaita philosophy?

a) Ramanujar b) Ramananda c) Nammazhwar d) Adi Shankara

3. Who spread the Bhakthi ideology in northern India and made it a mass movement?

a) Vallabhacharya b) Ramanujar c) Ramananda d) Surdas

4. Who made Chishti order popular in India?

a) Moinuddin Chishti b) Suhrawardi c) Amir Khusru d) Nizamuddin Auliya

5. Who is considered their first guru by the Sikhs?

a) Lehna b) Guru Amir Singh c) Guru Nanak d) Guru Gobind Singh Exercise 2. Fill in the Blanks

1. Periyaalwar was earlier known as .

2. is the holy book of the Sikhs.

3. Meerabai was the disciple of .

4. philosophy is known as vishistadvaita.

5. Gurudwara Darbar Sahib is situated at in Pakistan.

Exercise 3. Match the following

1. Pahul
2. Ramcharitmanas
3. Srivaishnavism
4. Granthavali
5. Suhrawardi

Exercise 4. Find out the right pair / pairs

1. Andal - Srivilliputhur

Correct Incorrect

2. Tukaram - Bengal

Correct Incorrect

3. Chaitanyadeva - Maharashtra

Correct Incorrect

4. Brahma-sutra - Vallabacharya

Correct Incorrect

5. Gurudwaras - Sikhs

Correct Incorrect Exercise 4.2. Assertion and Reason

Assertion (A): After Guru Gobind Singh, the holy book Guru Granth Sahib came to be considered the guru.

Reason (R): Guru Gobind Singh was the compiler of Guru Granth Sahib.

a) R is not the correct explanation of A b) R is the correct explanation of A c) A is correct but R is wrong d) Both A and R are wrong Exercise 4.3. Find the odd person out

Poigai Azhwar, Bhoothathu Azhwar, Periazhwar, Andal, Nammazhwar.

Exercise 5. True or False 1. Sufism was responsible for the spread of Islamic culture. 2. The best known Sufi sage of the early medieval period was Nizamuddin Auliya of the Chishti order. 3. Guru Nanak is considered the first guru of Sikhs. 4. Sufis believed that realization of God can be achieved only through passionate devotion to God and intense meditation. 5. The basic Tamil Saivite sacred canon consists of 12 books. Exercise 6. Give short answers

1. What do you know about Tirumurai?

2. How many Nayanmars were there and who were prominent among them?

3. How did Gurunanak help to found Sikhism?

4. What had Tukkaram to do with the Vitthoba temple of Pantharpur?

5. Highlight the spiritual ideas of Kabir that appealed to lower classes.

Exercise 7. Answer the following in detail

1. Give an account of the contributions of exponents of Bhakti Movement in the southern as well as northern parts of India.

2. What is Sufism? How did it find its footing in India?

3. What impact did Bhakti movement make on Indian society?

Exercise 8. Higher Order Thinking

1. Examine the statement that the Bhakti movement saved Vedic Hinduism from the onslaught of Islam.

Exercise 9. Activity

Visiting the living places as well as the places associated with the Bhakthi saints in Tamil Nadu.

Book-back Exercises — Questions & Answers

Answers generated strictly from the Samacheer Kalvi textbook content. Attempt each question first, then click "Show Answer" to check.

1. Choose the correct answer

1. Who of the following composed songs on Krishna putting himself in the place of mother Yashoda?

a) Poigaiazhwar b) Periyazhwar c) Nammazhwar d) Andal

Answer: b) Periyazhwar

Explanation: Periyazhwar, who was earlier known as Vishnu Chittar, made lots of songs on Krishna putting himself in the place of mother Yashoda.

2. Who preached the Advaita philosophy?

a) Ramanujar b) Ramananda c) Nammazhwar d) Adi Shankara

Answer: d) Adi Shankara

Explanation: Adi Shankara preached the Advaita philosophy. The essence of this philosophy is that the soul unites with the universal soul through the attainment of knowledge.

3. Who spread the Bhakthi ideology in northern India and made it a mass movement?

a) Vallabhacharya b) Ramanujar c) Ramananda d) Surdas

Answer: c) Ramananda

Explanation: It was Ramananda who spread the Bhakti ideology in northern India where it became a mass movement.

4. Who made Chishti order popular in India?

a) Moinuddin Chishti b) Suhrawardi c) Amir Khusru d) Nizamuddin Auliya

Answer: a) Moinuddin Chishti

Explanation: Moinuddin Chishti made Chisti order popular in India. He died in Ajmer and his resting place is in the Ajmer Sharif Dargah.

5. Who is considered their first guru by the Sikhs?

a) Lehna b) Guru Amir Singh c) Guru Nanak d) Guru Gobind Singh

Answer: c) Guru Nanak

Explanation: He is considered the first guru by the Sikhs.

2. Fill in the Blanks

1. Periyaalwar was earlier known as ____.

Answer: Vishnu Chittar

2. ____ is the holy book of the Sikhs.

Answer: Guru Granth Sahib

3. Meerabai was the disciple of ____.

Answer: Ravidas

4. ____ philosophy is known as vishistadvaita.

Answer: Ramanuja's

5. Gurudwara Darbar Sahib is situated at ____ in Pakistan.

Answer: Kartarpur

3. Match the Following

3. Match the following

1. Pahul	a) Kabir
2. Ramcharitmanas	b) Sikhs
3. Srivaishnavism	c) Abdul-Wahid Abu Najib
4. Granthavali	d) Guru Gobind Singh
5. Suhrawardi	e) Tulsidas

Answers: 1-d, 2-e, 3-b, 4-a, 5-c

4. Find out the right pair / pairs

1. Find out the right pair / pairs:

Answer: 1. Andal - Srivilliputhur, 5. Gurudwaras - Sikhs

2. Assertion (A): After Guru Gobind Singh, the holy book Guru Granth Sahib came to be considered the guru. Reason (R): Guru Gobind Singh was the compiler of Guru Granth Sahib.

Answer: a) R is not the correct explanation of A

3. Find the odd person out: Poigai Azhwar, Bhoothathu Azhwar, Periazhwar, Andal, Nammazhwar.

Answer: Andal (She is the only female Azhwar)

5. State true or false

1. Sufism was responsible for the spread of Islamic culture.

Answer: True

2. The best known Sufi sage of the early medieval period was Nizamuddin Auliya of the Chishti order.

Answer: True

3. Guru Nanak is considered the first guru of Sikhs.

Answer: True

4. Sufis believed that realization of God can be achieved only through passionate devotion to God and intense meditation.

Answer: True

5. The basic Tamil Saivite sacred canon consists of 12 books.

Answer: True

6. Give short answers

1. What do you know about Tirumurai?

Answer: Refer to the chapter text for this answer.

2. How many Nayanmars were there and who were prominent among them?

Answer: The Nayanmars were the worshipers of Siva or the Saivites who composed devotional hymns in Tamil language dedicated to their god. However, the exact number is not mentioned in the chapter text.

3. How did Gurunanak help to found Sikhism?

Answer: Guru Nanak's teachings formed the basis of Sikhism, a new religious order founded in the late fifteenth century. He preached that God is without form and wanted his followers to practice meditation upon the name of God for peace and ultimate salvation.

4. What had Tukkaram to do with the Vitthoba temple of Pantharpur?

Answer: Tukaram, a seventeenth century saint poet of Maharashtra, is known for his spiritual songs devoted to Vitthoba, an avatar of Krishna. There is a Vitthoba/Panduranga temple at Pantharpur in Sholapur district, Maharashtra.

5. Highlight the spiritual ideas of Kabir that appealed to lower classes.

Answer: Kabir believed that God is one and formless. He opposed discrimination on the basis of religion, caste and wealth. He also condemned meaningless rituals. It was the Hindus, particularly those of the lower classes, to whom his message appealed.

7. Answer the following in detail

1. Give an account of the contributions of exponents of Bhakti Movement in the southern as well as northern parts of India.

Answer: In South India, the Azhwars and Nayanmars composed devotional hymns in Tamil language. Notable figures include Nammazhwar with his Tiruvaimozhi, Andal with her Thiruppavai, and Periyazhwar who composed songs on Krishna. Adi Shankara preached Advaita philosophy and established mathas. Ramanuja spread vishistadvaita philosophy and established centres for Srivaishnavism. In North India, Ramananda spread Bhakti ideology as a mass movement. Other prominent figures included Vallabhacharya, Surdas, Meera Bai, Chaitanyadeva in Bengal, Tulsidas with his Ramcharitmanas, and Tukaram in Maharashtra.

2. What is Sufism? How did it find its footing in India?

Answer: Sufism appeared as a reaction against worldliness of early Islam. Sufis believed that realisation of God can be achieved only through passionate devotion to God and intense meditation. The word Sufi takes its origin from 'suf', meaning wool, as Sufis wore coarse garments made of wool. The advent of Sufis to India dates back to the Arab conquest of Sind. It gained prominence in the tenth and eleventh centuries during the reign of Delhi Sultans. Sufism adopted many native Indian concepts such as yogic postures, music and dance, and found adherents among both Muslims and Hindus.

3. What impact did Bhakti movement make on Indian society?

Answer: The Bhakti movement made several significant impacts on Indian society: Vedic Hinduism was regenerated and saved from the onslaught of Islam. The Islamic tenets of unity of God and universal brotherhood promoted harmony and peace. Bhakti was a movement of common people using their language for devotional literature. It opened up space for Indian languages to grow and stimulated literary activity in regional languages. Caste system and social disparities came to be criticised. Tamil literature's emphasis shifted from secular to religious themes under the influence of devotional cults.

8. Higher Order Thinking

1. Examine the statement that the Bhakti movement saved Vedic Hinduism from the onslaught of Islam.

Answer: The statement is supported by the chapter text which states that Vedic Hinduism was regenerated and thus saved from the onslaught of Islam through the Bhakti movement. The movement provided an alternative spiritual path that emphasized devotion over rituals, making Hinduism more accessible to common people. The poet-saints criticized caste-based social status and advocated gender equality to make it good to stand the onslaught of Buddhism or Jainism as well. This revitalization helped preserve Hindu traditions while adapting to changing social conditions.

9. Activity

1. Visiting the living places as well as the places associated with the Bhakti saints in Tamil Nadu.

Answer: This is an activity question. Students should visit places like Srivilliputhur (associated with Andal), Srirangam (associated with Ramanuja and Nammazhwar), and other temples and places mentioned in the chapter that are connected with Bhakti saints.

📝 Summary

1. The Bhakti movement began in Tamil Nadu around seventh century AD, emphasizing devotional practices like reciting God's name, singing hymns, and undertaking pilgrimages, believing that total devotion could earn salvation without temples or rituals.
2. The Azhwars (Vaishnavite sages) and Nayanmars (Saivites) composed devotional hymns in Tamil dedicated to Vishnu and Siva respectively, with notable figures like Nammazhwar creating 1,102-stanza Tiruvaimozhi and Andal being the only female Azhwar.
3. Sufism emerged in Islam as a reaction against worldliness, teaching that God's realization comes through passionate devotion and intense meditation, helping devotees become one with God and liberation from worldly bonds.
4. Various mystical movements in both Hinduism and Islam freely incorporated elements from different faiths, with figures like Haridasa stating "There is only one god, though Hindus and Muslims call him by different names."
5. The Bhagavad Gita inspired Bhakti cult exponents by proposing that the path of bhakti is superior to the paths of knowledge (jnana) and rituals (karma), while poet-saints criticized caste-based social status and advocated gender equality.