Development Of Education In India
Class 8 | Social Science — History | Unit 5
Class 8 Unit 5 History
Unit 5 Development of Education in India
Learning Objectives
To acquaint oneself with Formal education in ancient India Learning under Gurukula system in traditional centres and in mutts and monasteries Education in Medieval India European missionaries and advancement of Western education in British India Educational progress in the Post-Independence India
Introduction
Education is a process that begins at birth and continues until the end of life. The primary objective of formal education at school is to help children develop intellectual skills and physical capabilities. The pupils who join college or university after schooling acquire required skills to prepare themselves for the future. A person graduated from an institution of higher a learning is expected to be endowed with holistic knowledge in their chosen subject of study, possessing scientific outlook and historical perspective. How an education system anticipating such a possibility evolved in India over time is dealt with in this chapter.
Education in Ancient India
In ancient India daughters as well as sons of priestly and warrior classes had access to education. The pupils were taught in ashramas and hermitages to memorize Vedic hymns and learn the subjects such as Sanskrit grammar, prose, and verse compositions, logic and metaphysics. Their curriculum also included astronomy, mathematics, medicine and astrology. This tradition of teachinglearning was called Gurukula system. In ancient Tamil Nadu, we find references to learned women in Sangam literature. We have examples of Aadhimanthiyar and Avvaiyar , and forty other poetesses who lived during the Sangam Age. The scripts engraved on potsherds excavated in Keeladi, Sivagangai district in Tamil Nadu is illustrative of the high literacy level the people had attained even as early as 6th century BC (B C E).
In Purananuru (183) Ariyapadai Kadandha Nedunchezhiyan (Nedunchezhiyan who defeated the Aryan Army) of Sangam period in his poem emphasised the importance of education. He exhorted everyone to learn from the teacher, irrespective of poverty, giving gifts to him, while pointing out that even a mother favours the learned among the children born to her, and a ruler follows one who is learned. He further added, if a lower class person is learned, even upper class person would bow before him.
Upanishads marked a radical departure from the Vedic beliefs. The term upa-ni-shad, meaning 'to sit down near one', refers to the wisdom learned in secret at the feet of a sage, usually in a forest retreat. The Upanishads shifted its emphasis from gods and rituals to mystic knowledge. Education in post Vedic period was organised in living quarters or private houses of learned teachers. We know about the continuing Gurukula system followed in Varanasi (Banaras/Kasi) from the accounts of the French traveller Bernier. According to him in Banaras masters were sent to different parts of the town to teach in private houses, mainly in the gardens of the rich merchants. Some of these masters had four disciples, others six or seven and the most eminent had twelve. Here teaching was on Vedas, Upanishads, Dharmasastras and epics. The teacher earned livelihood from the dakshinas, or customary gifts of the community. There were also charities to house and feed teachers without charge.
Education in Monasteries
The great religious reformers of 6th century BC (BCE), Mahavira, Buddha and Gosala rejected the authority of Vedas. In the age that followed numerous sects emerged of which only Jainism and Buddhism survived into modern times. Jaina and Buddhist monasteries educated and trained their monks. Here students had to remain for a specified period of time to complete their education. Jainas had their religious literature in ArdhaMagadhi and in Pali languages. In south India they established centres for religious instruction near Madurai, Kanchipuram and at Shravanabelagola, Karnataka. The Tamil word palli meaning school referred to Jaina monasteries. The contribution of Jains to Tamil literature was immense. Notable among their celebrated works were Thirukkural and Naladiyar .
In contrast to traditional educational centres of ancient types, Jaina and Buddhist centres provided education in large university like campuses. Nalanda in Bihar was a great Buddhist educational centre attracted students from places as far as China and Southeast Asia. These students carried back with them the message of Buddha's teachings. The same was with Vikramshila University that was established in the eighth century AD (CE) by King Dharmapala of Pala dynasty in Bengal. There were monasteries and colleges at Kanchipuram which had gained fame equalling Nalanda. Hiuen Tsang, a Buddhist monk from China visited Kanchipuram during the reign of Narasimha Pallava 1.
Do You Know?
Hiuen Tsang visited Nalanda in the seventh century AD (CE). At that time students there studied the Vedas and were trained in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and the art of warfare. UNESCO declared the excavated remains at Nalanda in the list of World Heritage in 2009.
Education in Medieval India
Temples functioned as a place for imparting formal education during the medieval period. In small villages temple priest taught the pupils. Education imparted at a more advanced level was in colleges attached to the large temples. Mutts or monasteries also emerged as centres of learning in medieval period. Saivite and Vaishnavite mutts received royal patronage in the form of endowments. The education these mutts focused was on Saivism, Vaishnavism, martial arts, music and painting. These mutts continued to exist and the Tamil savant U.V. Saminathar pursued his learning in Tiruvaduthurai Saivite mutt that was established in the fourteenth century. Technical education remained with guilds. Knowledge of mining, metallurgy, weaving, dyeing, carpentry was the preserve of the relevant guild. The sons of artisans were trained in hereditary occupations. These guilds functioned separately and there was no exchange of knowledge between these guilds and the educational centres.
During the sultanate and the Mughal rule , unlike the Sanskrit schools that catered to the upper and ruling classes, Islamic schools (Maktabs) were open to all without restriction. Here pupils in addition to memorising portions of the Quran also learnt vernacular and Persian. In the Madrasas, (Arabic institutions of higher learning) a poor student coming from a far off place could get the necessities of life from a pious family in the neighbourhood. Madrasas functioned as a theological seminary and law school. Curriculum centred on the Quran and the Hadith. In addition students were taught Arabic grammar, literature, arithmetic and accounting, logic.
English East India Company and Modern English Education
The concern for Indian education was first shown by Governor General Warren Hastings. Responding to a delegation of leading Muslims headed by a maulvi, he facilitated the establishment of a Madrasa at Calcutta in 1780-'81. There were forty stipendiary students studying there. In the next decade (1791-'92) with the support of his successor Cornwallis, Jonathan Duncan, later governor of Bombay, founded a Sanskrit college at Banaras at the cost of government. Thereafter for twenty years the government did not accept direct responsibility for education. Educational funds continued to be spent for many years on oriental learning. English Parliament while renewing the East India Company's Charter in 1813 included a clause to provide 'not less than one lakh of rupees' for the promotion of literature and sciences in British territories in India. But the money earmarked for the purpose remained unspent. Meanwhile thanks to the initiative of social reformer Raja Rammohan Roy, the Hindu College was founded in Calcutta with local subscription in 1817. The purpose was to provide liberal education in English language. The Christian missionaries making use of their freedom on their part opened a Baptist Mission College in the following year (1818) at Serampore. Raja Rammohan Roy pleaded for more 'enlightened system of education in which mathematics, philosophy, chemistry, anatomy and other useful sciences would be included'
English Education
Noting that the cultured classes were desirous of English education, William Bentinck on his appointment as Governor General of India appointed Thomas Babington Macaulay to be the chairman of the then existing Education Committee to recommend a definite policy on education to be adopted. Macaulay prepared his famous Minute of 1835. According to this Minute the objective of the government's educational policy was to be 'the promotion of European literature and science among the natives of India'. It was also clearly stated that the medium of language to be used was English. Bentinck endorsed Macaulay's Minute and decided that the Education fund henceforth should be spent on English education alone.
Wood's Despatch
The Company's charter renewal came up in 1852 and this provided occasion for the British Parliament to take a definite decision on education. The new educational policy statement was sent in the famous Charles Wood's Despatch of 1854. The Wood's Despatch reiterated what had been stated in Macaulay's famous Minute of 1835. Though there were protests from orthodox sections of Indians, the government went ahead with its policy and founded a university in each of the three presidencies. University education started with the setting up at Madras, Bombay and Calcutta universities modelled on the then University of London in 1857. The main function was to hold examination and to confer degrees on successful candidates appearing from affiliated colleges. The University in each Presidency prescribed the courses and the syllabi.
Christian Missionaries and Education
Bengal
The contribution of Christian missionaries to education was praiseworthy. A Bengal elementary school was started by Baptist missionaries with forty boys at Serampore in 1800. This was followed by establishment of a number of schools in the presidency by London Missionary Society. European missionaries showed more interest than the government in Indian women's progress. Miss Mary Ann Cook on her arrival in India in 1821 established 23 girl schools with an average of 25 to 30 students in each in Calcutta and the surrounding villages. Another notable event was the establishment of the Bethune School (1849) at Calcutta by John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune. This school later taken over by the government after his death and it became the first institution of higher education for women in 1879.
Bombay
The American Society established school for girls in 1824 with the objective of educationg the daughters of soldiers. Dr. and Mrs. Wilson founded six girls schools in Bombay during the year 1829-'30. Jyotiba Phule opened a pioneering school (1848) for girls of the historically marginalised sections of the society in Pune. In 1889 Professor Karve of Poona started a school for Hindu widows. This developed into the Women's University (Shreemati Nathibai Damodar Thackersey Women's University - SNDT) in 1916. Parsis in Bombay took active interest in women's education. In 1913 out of ten high schools for girls in Bombay, eight were run by Parsis. Later the All India Women's Conference (1926) resolved to start a college to be entirely staffed and managed by women. This college is Lady Irwin College, Delhi.
Tamil Nadu
The missionary education started in Tamil Nadu with German Lutheran missionary Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg and his elder colleague Henri Plustscham who arrived in India on 9 July 1706. Though the purpose was to serve the cause of Protestant religion, they established schools in the Danish settlement of Tharangambadi (Tranquebar). This was a pioneering effort which was followed by the missionaries of the later period. Ziegenbalg learnt Tamil and translated the Bible into Tamil. He imported a printing press from Germany and arranged for the publication of Christian literature. In the presidency of Madras, a survey made in 1822 showed the existence of 12,498 institutions of all kinds with 1, 84, 110 students on roll. Sir Thomas Munro, Governor of Madras, 1820-1827, claimed that the state of education, though low compared to England, was higher than in most of European countries. In Madras two Scottish chaplains Rev. Lawrie and Rev. Bowie started a school in the vicinity of St. Andrew's Church, Egmore, in 1835. This school was later shifted to Black Town (George Town from 1911) in 1837. There were 59 students studying in that school. Rev. William Miller upgraded the school into a college in 1862. This is the Madras Christian College, Tambaram. Realising the importance of English education the elite of the Madras city presented a petition in 1839 to provide facilities for Western education. In response a High School was established at Egmore in 1840 which was upgraded to the status of a college in 1857. This is Madras Presidency College.
Do You Know?
In Tiruchirappalli in 1838 Holy Cross Sisters founded the St. Joseph's Anglo Indian School. The Jesuits established St. Joseph's College in 1844. In Tirunelveli the Christian Mission Society started a school in 1844 which was upgraded to the status of a college (then C.M.S. College, now St. John's College) in 1876.
Progress in Higher Education under Crown
After the British Parliament transferred the government and territories of the East India Company to the Crown, in educational affairs the policy of the Company continued to be the policy of the Crown. The success of university education and the growing demand for educated Indian in administration, in law courts provided stimulus for the establishment of more number of colleges and universities. At the same time the substitution of English in courts and offices deprived Muslims of their employment when Persian was court and administrative language. It was at this time Sir Syed Ahmad Khan established Muhammadan-Anglo School (1875) at Aligarh which ultimately developed into the Muslim University of Aligarh (1920). By the second decade of twentieth century universities had come up in prominent cities, following Sadler Commission Report (1917). There were unitary and residential universities started thanks to the initiatives taken by the philanthropists. The notable example is Jamsetji Tata's Indian Institute of Science (1909), Bengaluru. In Madras, the Pachaiyappa's School named after a dubash of the 18th century came up in 1845, which was later upgraded to a college in 1880.In Tamil Nadu Annamalai University was established in 1929.
Spread of Education
Notwithstanding the colleges and universities education continued to be the preserve of the upper and middle classes. Gandhiji came up with Wardha educational scheme aimed at imparting elementary education through some craft along with the basics. It was hoped that children would produce enough to pay the cost of their education and make possible the introduction of free and compulsory education. However the Hunter Commission's recommendation of fixing the responsibility of providing primary education with local and municipal governments became possible when Dyarchy was in operation in provinces (1921-1937). The Sargent Commission's Scheme (1944) of introducing free and compulsory education for all Indian children in the 6-11 years age group had to await independence for its implementation.
Education in Independent India
In 1951 only 18.3 percentage of people were literate. The male literacy was 27.2 percentage while female literacy rate was 8.9. In 1950-51 there were two lakh students on rolls in Institution of higher learning. There were 58 universities when University Grants Commission was set up in 1956 to maintain standards in higher education. The national government appointed the Dr. Radhakrishnan Commission (1948), the Secondary Education Commission under the chairmanship of Dr. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliyar (1952-'53), and the Kothari Commission (1964) suggested measures for modernisation of Education system in the country.
Important recommendations of the Kothari Commission are: 1. 10 plus 2 plus 3 pattern of education 2. Vocationalisation of secondary education 3. Common school system of public education where students would learn up to 5th standard at schools in neighbourhood in their mother tongue.4. Free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years. 5. Union government to invest at least six per cent of its GDP in the education sector.
Education in Science and Technology
The Government of India in the meantime adopted measures to strengthen the much neglected sphere of science and technology in the country. Before the end of three plan periods five IITs, 17 national laboratories specialising in different areas of research, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Atomic Energy Commission had been established. Thereafter D.P. Chattopadhyay Committee on Teacher Education1983, National Education Policy Commission, 1986, Acharya Ramamurthy Review Committee of 1990, Yashpal Committee 1993, T.S.R. Subramanian Committee (2015) constituted with the objective of reforming the curriculum in keeping with the changing time, had come up with several recommendations.
Accomplishment until Now
Thanks to the remedial measures taken by the successive governments, both Union and State, based on the reports of the said Commissions and Committees, as well as the governmental programmes such as scholarships to the meritorious, deprived and disadvantaged, waiving of tuition fee for undergraduate courses, free uniform and noon meal schemes in schools, the enrolment rate increased and dropout rate decreased remarkably in schools. As a sequence male literacy 2019-21 stood at 84.4 percentage (against 27.2 percentage in 1951) and female literacy stood at 71.5 percentage (against 8.9 in 1951). In 2018 about 36.6 million students were in 907 institutes of higher learning (against 58 institutes in 1956).
Recap
In ancient period the pupils were taught in ashramas and hermitages to memorize vedic hymns Education under gurukula system was organized in quarters and private houses of learned teachers. Temples and mutts functioned as a place for imparting formal education during the medieval period. Maktabs (Muslim schools) and Madrasas (institution of higher education) started with admission to all without restrictions. Support of Governor Generals, Warren Hastings and Cornwallis for oriental learning. The contribution of Christian missionaries to modern education in general and women's education in particular. The national government's measures for modernisation of education by appointing commissions: Dr. Radhakrishnan Commission (1948) Dr. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliyar Commission (1952) Kothari Commission (1964) Progress in education – A comparison of condition in the immediate post – independence period and condition at the close of second decade of the 21st century
GLOSSARY
Philanthropist refers to someone who makes donations to charities intended to increase human well being – பிறர் நலனுக்கு உழைப்பவர், கொடையாளி, நன்கொடையாளர் Hadith a collection of traditions containing sayings of the prophet Muhammad with accounts of his daily practices – இஸ்லாமிய கிரந்தங்கள் Hermitage the abode of a hermit – துறவிகள் வாழ்விடம் Maulvi expounder of Muhammadan law, Muslim theologian – இஸ்லாமிய சட்ட நிபுணர் Savant Genius - அறிவாளி Reiterated restated – வலியுறுத்தல் Waiving refraining from insisting on – தள்ளுபடி செய்தல் Dubash an Indian translator or interpreter – இந்திய மொழிப்பெயர்ப்பாளர்
Evaluation
Exercise 1. Choose the correct answer
1. Whose account is the source of information for the Gurukula system followed in Varanasi ?
a) Nikitin b) Hiuen Tsang c) Domingo Paes d) Bernier
2. Which University was established by King Dharmapala in Bengal?
a) Taxila University b) Vikramshila University c) Banaras University d) Nalanda University
3. In whose reign Chinese monk Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram?
a) Chandragupta 2 b) Mahendira Pallava c) Narasimha Pallava 1 d) Harsha Vardhana
4. When did UNESCO declare Nalanda as a world heritage site?
a) 2006 b) 2007 c) 2008 d) 2009
5. Who was the Governor General to establish the first madrasa in Calcutta?
a) Warren Hastings b) Robert Clive c) William Bentinck d) Ripon
6. Who was the social reformer who started a school for the women of historically marginalized section?
a) Jyotiba Phule b) Raja Rammohan Roy c) Keshub Chandra Sen d) Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
7. Where did the German missionary Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg start first school in Tamil Nadu?
a) Tranquebar b) Tirunelveli c) Thanjavur d) Tiruchirappalli Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks
1. Daughters as well as sons of priestly and warrior classes had access to education in India.
2. Baptist Mission College was started in 1818 at .
3. Professor Karve started a school for Hindu Widows in .
4. College in Delhi was started by the initiative of the All India Women's Conference.
5. The first Commission on Secondary education was chaired by .
Exercise 3. Match the following
| 1. University Grand commission | |
| 2. Kothari commission | |
| 3. Macaulay | |
| 4. Free and compulsory education | |
| 5. Tatas Indian institute of science | |
Exercise 4. State True or False 1. We have evidence to show that the script of Indus and the script on pottery unearthed in Keeladi is same. 2. Naladiyar was the contribution of Jains 3. The term upa-ni-shad, means "to sit down near one" 4. Buddha, Mahavira and Gosala revolted against the authority of Vedas. 5. Nalanda was a great Vedic educational centre. Exercise 5. Consider the following statements and tick ( ✓ ) the appropriate answer
1. a) Sanskrit education focused on Vedas, Upanishads, Dharma Sastras and epics
b) In Varanasi, teachers under the gurukula system taught in their own houses.
c) Monasteries were built on the models of universities.
d) Under the Gurukula system the teachers were supported by the endowments of the kings.
1) a and b are correct 2) b and d are correct 3) c and d are correct 4) a and c are correct Exercise 6. Answer the following in one or two sentences
1. Write about the reference to importance given to education in Purananuru.
2. Highlight the contribution of Jains to Tamil literature.
3. What do you know about Nalanda University?
4. Point out the essence of Islamic education in medieval India.
5. What is Gandhiji's Wardha Scheme of Education?
Exercise 7. Answer the following in detail
1. Discuss the essential features of learning in Jaina and Buddhist monasteries.
2. Attempt a brief account of the famous Minute of Macaulay.
3. What were the institutions founded to strengthen Science and Technology by the Indian government in the postindependence context?
4. Highlight the important recommendations of Kothari Commission.
Exercise 8. HOTs
1. Assess the role of Christian missionaries in the development of modern education in British India.
Exercise 9. Mark the following places on the outline map of India
1. Nalanda 6. Delhi
2. Tiruchirappalli 7. Varanasi
3. Madurai 8. Bombay
4. Kanchipuram 9. Calcutta
5. Vikramshila 10. Chennai
X Project and Activity
Activity 1. Project Activity
1. Collect the pictures of educational centres of learning, Vedic, Jainas, Buddhists, Islamic, in ancient and medieval India and prepare an album.
Activity 2. Debate Activity
2. Conduct a debate in the class for and against the British system of Education.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Abraham Eraly, Gem in the Lotus, Penguin, 2002
2. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate, Penguin, 2014
3. Burton Stein, A History of India, Oxford University, 2004
4. M.A. Laird, "The Contribution of Christian Missionaries to Education in Bengal", 1795-1857, Ph.D. thesis submitted to School of Oriental and African Studies, 1968
5. L.S.S. O'Malley, Modern India and the West, Oxford University Press, 1968
6. Romila Thapar, Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300, Penguin, 2002
7. Sulochana Krishnamoorthy, "Development of Education for Women in Bombay under British Raj", Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol.64 (2003), pp. 1110-1115.
INTERNET RESOURCES
The Post-Independence India: The Education, https://www.britanica.com
UGC Annual Report 2018- 19 in http://14/139.60.153
www.wikicommons
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Book-back Exercises — Questions & Answers
Answers generated strictly from the Samacheer Kalvi textbook content. Attempt each question first, then click "Show Answer" to check.
1. Choose the correct answer
1. Whose account is the source of information for the Gurukula system followed in Varanasi?
a) Nikitin b) Hiuen Tsang c) Domingo Paes d) Bernier
Answer: d) Bernier
Explanation: According to the chapter, we know about the continuing Gurukula system followed in Varanasi from the accounts of the French traveller Bernier.
2. Which University was established by King Dharmapala in Bengal?
a) Taxila University b) Vikramshila University c) Banaras University d) Nalanda University
Answer: b) Vikramshila University
Explanation: The chapter states that Vikramshila University was established in the eighth century AD by King Dharmapala of Pala dynasty in Bengal.
3. In whose reign Chinese monk Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram?
a) Chandragupta 2 b) Mahendira Pallava c) Narasimha Pallava 1 d) Harsha Vardhana
Answer: c) Narasimha Pallava 1
Explanation: The chapter mentions that Hiuen Tsang, a Buddhist monk from China visited Kanchipuram during the reign of Narasimha Pallava 1.
4. When did UNESCO declare Nalanda as a world heritage site?
a) 2006 b) 2007 c) 2008 d) 2009
Answer: d) 2009
Explanation: According to the chapter, UNESCO declared the excavated remains at Nalanda in the list of World Heritage in 2009.
5. Who was the Governor General to establish the first madrasa in Calcutta?
a) Warren Hastings b) Robert Clive c) William Bentinck d) Ripon
Answer: a) Warren Hastings
Explanation: The chapter states that Governor General Warren Hastings facilitated the establishment of a Madrasa at Calcutta in 1780-'81.
6. Who was the social reformer who started a school for the women of historically marginalized section?
a) Jyotiba Phule b) Raja Rammohan Roy c) Keshub Chandra Sen d) Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
Answer: a) Jyotiba Phule
Explanation: The chapter mentions that Jyotiba Phule opened a pioneering school (1848) for girls of the historically marginalised sections of the society in Pune.
7. Where did the German missionary Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg start first school in Tamil Nadu?
a) Tranquebar b) Tirunelveli c) Thanjavur d) Tiruchirappalli
Answer: a) Tranquebar
Explanation: The chapter states that Bartholomaus Ziegenbalg and Henri Plustscham established schools in the Danish settlement of Tharangambadi (Tranquebar).
2. Fill in the blanks
1. Daughters as well as sons of priestly and warrior classes had access to education in _____ India.
Answer: ancient
2. Baptist Mission College was started in 1818 at _____.
Answer: Serampore
3. Professor Karve started a school for Hindu Widows in _____.
Answer: 1889
4. _____ College in Delhi was started by the initiative of the All India Women's Conference.
Answer: Lady Irwin
5. The first Commission on Secondary education was chaired by _____.
Answer: Dr. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliyar
3. Match the following
3. Match the Following
| Column A | Column B |
|---|
| 1. University Grant Commission | 1964 |
| 2. Kothari commission | English education |
| 3. Macaulay | Bengaluru |
| 4. Free and compulsory education | 1956 |
| 5. Tatas Indian institute of science | 6 to 14 years |
Answers: 1-1956, 2-1964, 3-English education, 4-6 to 14 years, 5-Bengaluru
4. State True or False
1. We have evidence to show that the script of Indus and the script on pottery unearthed in Keeladi is same.
Answer: False
2. Naladiyar was the contribution of Jains.
Answer: True
3. The term upa-ni-shad, means "to sit down near one".
Answer: True
4. Buddha, Mahavira and Gosala revolted against the authority of Vedas.
Answer: True
5. Nalanda was a great Vedic educational centre.
Answer: False
5. Consider the following statements and tick (✓) the appropriate answer
1. a) Sanskrit education focused on Vedas, Upanishads, Dharma Sastras and epics
b) In Varanasi, teachers under the gurukula system taught in their own houses.
c) Monasteries were built on the models of universities.
d) Under the Gurukula system the teachers were supported by the endowments of the kings.
1) a and b are correct
2) b and d are correct
3) c and d are correct
4) a and c are correct
Answer: 4) a and c are correct
6. Answer the following in one or two sentences
1. Write about the reference to importance given to education in Purananuru.
Answer: In Purananuru (183) Ariyapadai Kadandha Nedunchezhiyan emphasized the importance of education, exhorting everyone to learn from the teacher irrespective of poverty. He pointed out that even a mother favours the learned among her children, and if a lower class person is learned, even upper class person would bow before him.
2. Highlight the contribution of Jains to Tamil literature.
Answer: The contribution of Jains to Tamil literature was immense. Notable among their celebrated works were Thirukkural and Naladiyar.
3. What do you know about Nalanda University?
Answer: Nalanda in Bihar was a great Buddhist educational centre that attracted students from places as far as China and Southeast Asia. Students studied the Vedas and were trained in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and the art of warfare.
4. Point out the essence of Islamic education in medieval India.
Answer: Islamic schools (Maktabs) were open to all without restriction where pupils memorised portions of the Quran and learnt vernacular and Persian. Madrasas functioned as theological seminaries and law schools with curriculum centered on the Quran and Hadith.
5. What is Gandhiji's Wardha Scheme of Education?
Answer: Gandhiji's Wardha educational scheme aimed at imparting elementary education through some craft along with the basics. It was hoped that children would produce enough to pay the cost of their education and make possible the introduction of free and compulsory education.
7. Answer the following in detail
1. Discuss the essential features of learning in Jaina and Buddhist monasteries.
Answer: Jaina and Buddhist monasteries educated and trained their monks where students had to remain for a specified period to complete their education. Jainas had their religious literature in Ardha-Magadhi and Pali languages and established centres near Madurai, Kanchipuram and Shravanabelagola. In contrast to traditional centres, these provided education in large university-like campuses. Nalanda attracted students from China and Southeast Asia, while Vikramshila University was established by King Dharmapala. These monasteries contributed significantly to literature, with Jains producing works like Thirukkural and Naladiyar.
2. Attempt a brief account of the famous Minute of Macaulay.
Answer: William Bentinck appointed Thomas Babington Macaulay as chairman of the Education Committee to recommend educational policy. Macaulay's famous Minute of 1835 stated that the objective of government's educational policy was 'the promotion of European literature and science among the natives of India' with English as the medium of instruction. Bentinck endorsed this Minute and decided that the Education fund should be spent on English education alone. This marked a decisive shift towards Western education in India.
3. What were the institutions founded to strengthen Science and Technology by the Indian government in the post-independence context?
Answer: The Government of India adopted measures to strengthen science and technology by establishing five IITs, 17 national laboratories specialising in different areas of research, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Atomic Energy Commission within three plan periods. These institutions were created to address the much neglected sphere of science and technology in the country and promote scientific research and development.
4. Highlight the important recommendations of Kothari Commission.
Answer: The Kothari Commission (1964) made several important recommendations: 10 plus 2 plus 3 pattern of education, vocationalisation of secondary education, common school system of public education where students would learn up to 5th standard at neighbourhood schools in their mother tongue, free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years, and Union government to invest at least six per cent of its GDP in the education sector. These recommendations aimed at modernising the education system in the country.
8. HOTs
1. Assess the role of Christian missionaries in the development of modern education in British India.
Answer: Christian missionaries made praiseworthy contributions to education, especially women's education. They started schools across presidencies - Baptist missionaries began elementary schools in Bengal, while in Bombay, American Society and Dr. Wilson established girls' schools. In Tamil Nadu, German Lutheran missionaries Ziegenbalg and Plustscham pioneered missionary education at Tranquebar, establishing schools and translating the Bible into Tamil. Missionaries founded notable institutions like Bethune School for women in Calcutta, Baptist Mission College at Serampore, and various colleges in Tamil Nadu including Madras Christian College. They showed more interest than the government in Indian women's progress and played a crucial role in introducing Western education and modern teaching methods throughout British India.
📝 Summary
- Ancient India had formal education through the Gurukula system in ashramas and hermitages, where students learned Vedic hymns, Sanskrit grammar, logic, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, with both sons and daughters of priestly and warrior classes having access to education.
- Tamil Nadu showed high literacy levels as early as 6th century BC, evidenced by scripts on potsherds from Keeladi excavations, and had learned women poets like Aadhimanthiyar and Avvaiyar during the Sangam Age.
- The Upanishads marked a departure from Vedic beliefs, emphasizing mystic knowledge learned in secret at the feet of sages, with the term meaning 'to sit down near one'.
- Post-Vedic education continued in Varanasi through private houses and gardens, where masters taught Vedas, Upanishads, Dharmasastras and epics to small groups of disciples, earning their livelihood through dakshinas or customary gifts.
- Religious reformers like Mahavira, Buddha and Gosala rejected Vedic authority in 6th century BC, leading to the establishment of Jaina and Buddhist monasteries that educated monks, with Jainas creating religious instruction centers in south India near Madurai, Kanchipuram and Shravanabelagola.