Colonialism In Asia And Africa

Class 9 | Social Science — History | Unit 11

Class 9 Unit 11 History

UNIT 11 Colonialism in Asia and Africa

Learning Objectives

To acquaint oneself with

• The territories forming South East Asia
• Establishment of colonies by the Portuguese, the Spanish, the Dutch, the French, the British and the Americans
• Impact of colonisation on the Malaya Peninsula, Indonesia, Burma, Indo-China, Philippines
• Conquest of Africa, and the colonial regimes of the Dutch, the British, the Portuguese, the Germans, and the Belgians
• British colonisation of India and colonial control of Indian economy
• Economic impact of British rule in India

Introduction

Colonialism is a process of domination, involving the subjugation of one people by another. Like colonialism, imperialism also involves political and economic control over a dependent territory. The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy differentiates the two as follows:

The term colony comes from the Latin word colonus, meaning farmer. This root indicates that the practice of colonialism usually involved the transfer of population to a new territory, where the arrivals lived as permanent settlers while maintaining political allegiance to their country of origin. Imperialism, on the other hand, (from the Latin term imperium, meaning to command) draws attention to the way one country exercises power over another, whether through settlement, sovereignty, or indirect mechanisms of control.

In World history, no continent possessed so many colonies and justified their access to the world by means of a civilising mission as did modern Europe. Practically the whole non-Western world was under one European power or the other for about four centuries until decolonisation happened after World War (2). In this lesson we discuss the colonisation of South East Asia, Africa and India by European powers.

11.1 Colonisation of Asia (South East Asia)

South East Asia

The term "South East Asia" has only been used since the Second World War. It denotes the area that originally covered Malaya, Dutch East Indies, Burma, Siam, French Indo-China and the Philippines. With the exception of Siam (Thailand), which remained independent, the area was divided between the Dutch, the British and the French.

Malaya Peninsula

When European traders crossed the Indian Ocean at the close of the 15th century, they came for the spices of south-east Asia. When the Portuguese conquered the great international emporium of Malacca for the king of Portugal, the empires of SriVijaya and Majapahit had split into many small states. Albuquerque, the Portuguese soldier who conquered Goa and Malacca, and his successors were interested in the spice trade. Towards this end they built a chain of fortified trading stations linked by naval power. Initially they did not interfere with the native rulers.

After the arrival of the Dutch and the English there was a challenge to the presence of Portuguese and the rivalry of these three European powers dominated the seventeenth century. The Dutch began their conquest of the Portuguese settlements by capturing Malacca in 1641. After establishing a base at Batavia (now Djakarta) in 1619, they interfered in succession disputes among the neighbouring sultans. Gradually they extended their control over Java, expelling the British from Bantam in 1682. They had already driven them out of the Spice islands after the Massacre of Amboina (1623) and by the seizure of Macassar (1667), thereby forcing the English East India Company to turn to the China trade. The Spanish established themselves, beginning from their conquest of Manila, which expanded into a larger territory of Spanish East Indies.

Anglo-Dutch Rivalry

Penang Island had been brought to the attention of the East India Company by Francis Light. In 1786, the settlement of George Town was founded at the north eastern tip of Penang Island; this marked the beginning of British expansion into the Malay Peninsula. In 1819, Stamford Raffles established Singapore as a key trading post for Britain in their rivalry with the Dutch. However, their rivalry cooled in 1824 when an Anglo-Dutch treaty demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. By 1826 Singapore and Malacca had been linked with Penang to form the Strait Settlements.

Between 1874 and 1895 there was a civil war between the remaining five Malay States. The British intervened and signed an agreement with each of the sultans. British Residents were appointed to the courts of sultans, who had to act in accordance with the advice given by the Residents. In 1896 four of the states were formed into the Federated Malay States. In 1900 there were the Straits Settlements, the four Federated Malay States and Johore. The population was about a million, of whom, half were Malay and the remainder were Chinese. Most of the merchants, planters and workers in the ports and big plantations were Chinese. Economically Malaya was prosperous

Indonesia

The Dutch had occupied Java and Sumatra (Indonesia) as early as 1640. But they conquered the other outer islands of East India only in the second half of the nineteenth century, excepting the British possession of North Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak. Initially the Dutch were not interested in politics but focused on exploiting Indonesia ruthlessly. But from the beginning of the twentieth century they adopted measures for the social and economic advance of the people they governed. Most Indonesians were fishermen and small peasants and worked on European sugar, tobacco, tea, coffee plantations. Heavy investments in these plantations and other concerns, and the discovery of oil in 1900 made Indonesia a valuable colony for the Dutch.

Burma

The British conquered Burma after fighting three wars. Burma remained part of India from 1886 to 1937. Burma was administered by a Lieutenant Governor with the assistance of a nominated Legislative Council. Burma teak was shipped overseas. In addition, Burma with its fertility of soil became a big exporter of rice and most of south India was dependent on Burmese rice. During World War II when Burma fell to the Japanese, south India experienced acute scarcity of rice leading to a famine.

Indo-China

The French conquered Indo-China after strong resistance from the people. Starting in 1858, they brought the Indo-Chinese Union under their control by 1887. Indo-China consisted of Annam, Tongking, Cambodia and Cochin-China. Laos was added six years later. Of them only Cochin-China was directly under French control, i.e., as a French colony. The remaining four were protectorates. Under this system, the local rulers remained, but they governed under the instructions of French Residents. Hanoi was the capital of the French government. Rice, rubber and wheat were the main exports. Laos remained undeveloped.

Spanish in Philippines

Spain ruled the Philippines for over 300 years, imposing its language, culture and religion. Consequently the population became predominantly Roman Catholic. Nationalism developed among the Filipinos during the latter part of the nineteenth century. There were two serious revolts in 1872 and 1896, which were crushed by the Spanish colonial government. In 1898, however, Spain was defeated by the United States in a war over Cuba, and as a result Philippines became an American colony.

Siam (Thailand)

Thailand was spared the experience of foreign rule, though it too was greatly affected by the power politics of the Western powers. The administrative reforms of the late 19th century, continuing up till around 1910, imposed a Westernised form of government on the country's partially independent cities called 'Mueang'. Western powers, however, continued to interfere in its internal and external affairs.

11.2 Colonisation of Africa

Until the last quarter of nineteenth century, Africa south of the Sahara (Sub-Saharan Africa) was almost unknown to the outside world. The interior of Africa was unexplored. After 1875, European penetration and colonisation began on a large scale. The Berlin Colonial Conference of 1884-85 resolved to divide Africa into spheres of influence of the various European powers. European colonisation of Africa was thus accomplished smoothly, without any outbreak of war amongst major European powers. The invasion, occupation, colonisation and annexation of African territories by European powers between 1881 and 1914, the era of Imperialism, is called the Scramble for Africa or the Partition of Africa.

The Berlin Conference of 1884–85, also known as the Congo Conference or West Africa Conference, met to decide all issues connected with the Congo River basin in Central Africa. The conference proposed by Portugal to discuss its claim to control the Congo river basin was rejected. The general act of the Conference of Berlin declared the Congo River basin to be neutral and guaranteed freedom for trade and shipping for all states in the basin

South Africa

In South Africa the British possessed Natal, Cape Colony, while the Dutch (locally known as the Boers) held the states of the Transvaal and Orange Free State. In 1886 the discovery of gold in the Transvaal led to a large number of British miners settling in and around Johannesburg. The Boers feared and hated the miners whom they called Uitlanders (foreigners). In 1890, Cecil Rhodes, the Prime Minister of Cape Colony, encouraged British expansion to the north of the Transvaal. This worsened the relations between the Boers and the British. Denied of their political rights the British miners revolted. This led to the Boer War which lasted three years (one thousand eight hundred and ninty nine to one thousand nine hundred and two). In the end the Boer army was defeated and Pretoria was occupied. The British annexed the two Boer states but promised self government in due course. Boer states were given full responsible government in one thousand nine hundred and seven. After discussions over the years the four states finally decided to form a union and South Africa was created as a state in one thousand nine hundred and nine.

The Zulu tribe was known for its strong fighting spirit, represented by renowned warriors like Shaka Zulu who played a prominent role in building the largest Zulu nation in south-eastern Africa. British troops invaded Zulu territory and divided it into thirteen chiefdoms. The Zulus never regained their independence and had to fight against deeply entrenched racism in South Africa for about a century.

Rhodesia

The British South African Company founded in 1889 conducted an expedition with 600 men- each of them were promised a 3,000 acre farm. The African king was tricked into believing that all that the Europeans wanted was gold. But they had come with a definite plan of colonising the Bechuanaland. During the next ten years African opposition was crushed. White immigrants were provided with farm lands and railways, and a telegraph system developed. The colony came to be called Rhodesia, after Cecil Rhodes.

West Africa

The coastal states of Gold Coast became a British colony in 1854. Nigeria was used for slave trading posts on the coast. In 1886 the Royal Niger Company was formed which was taken over by the British government in 1900.

French West: Senegal had been a French base in West Africa. Her later possessions of Guinea, Ivory Coast and Dahomey were linked up with the whole area of south of Sahara.

Congo: Leopold 2, king of Belgium, showed interest in Congo and so the Berlin Conference agreed to the rule of Leopold in Congo Free State. This State was given a monopoly of the trade in ivory and rubber, the two most valuable products of the Congo. These products were collected with harshness. Africans were subjected to forced labour. Each village was given a quota, and if quotas were not fulfilled, they were flogged and mutilated. The public outcry over the economic exploitation of Africans persuaded the Belgian Government to intervene. Leopold was forced to relinquish his "sovereign right" and in 1908 sovereignty over the Congo passed from Leopold to Belgium.

East Africa

British: In 1886 the possessions of the Sultan of Zanzibar were divided into British and German spheres of influence. For the first few years, the British area was administered by the British East India Company, but in 1895 the British government assumed authority and formed the East African Protectorate, which included Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar. A large part of Uganda was made up of Buganda, a kingdom ruled by Kabaka.

Germans: The Germans established their rule in what became German East Africa. Like King Leopold in the Congo, the Africans here were economically exploited, leading to a number of rebellions. The most serious was the Maji-Maji rebellion (one thousand nine hundred and five to one thousand nine hundred and seven).

Portuguese Angola and Mozambique

The Portuguese had used these two colonies on the west and east coasts of southern Africa, along with Portuguese Guinea since 16 th century.

African Rule in Liberia and Ethiopia

Only two countries managed to evade European colonialism – Liberia and Ethiopia. Liberia was formed in the early 19th century as a home for African Blacks repatriated from America. Ethiopia, with its traditional polity, was ruled by the emperor Menelik.

11.3 Colonisation of India

Towards the close of the 15th century, Portugal became the first European power to establish a trade link with India. Rounding the Cape of Good Hope Vasco da Gama arrived in Calicut in 1498. Soon other European powers joined Portugal in establishing their presence in India.

The European powers in India since 16th century are given below:

• Portuguese one thousand five hundred and five -1961
• Dutch East India Company (Netherlands) one thousand six hundred and five -1825
• Danish East India Company (Denmark) one thousand six hundred and twenty -1869
• French East India Company 1668-1954
• British East India Company 1612-1757
• British Company Rule 1757-1857
• British Imperial Rule 1858-1947

In the rivalry among four major European powers – Portuguese, Dutch, French and English – the English, after three Carnatic Wars, eliminated the French by the end of the eighteenth century. The British conquered all the regional powers, in particular the most potential challengers, the Mysore Sultans and the Marathas, by defeating them in three Anglo-Mysore and three Anglo-Maratha Wars. The conquest of the Gurkhas (1816), the Sindhis (1843) and the Sikhs (1849) enabled them to emerge as a territorial power in India.

The Colonialisation of Indian Economy

We can divide the process of the colonialisation of India into three phases

a. Phase 1 Mercantilist Capitalism

b. Phase 2 Industrial Capitalism

c. Phase 3 Financial Capitalism

a. Colonialisation of Indian Economy: Mercantilist Phase (Outright Plunder; 18th Century).

At the beginning of the 18th century the East India Company was still a marginal force in India. It relied on concessions from Indian rulers for its trading posts along the coast. But soon it managed to establish strong ties with Indian merchants who sold their textiles and other goods from the interior. Before it gained dominion in India the East India Company carried on a very profitable business selling Indian-made cotton textiles and silks and printed cloth. According to the Indian nationalist economist R.C. Dutt, "weaving was the national industry of the people and spinning was the pursuit of millions of women". Indian textiles went to England and other parts of Europe, to China and Japan and Burma and Arabia and Persia and parts of Africa.

It was during this period that the textile lobby in Lancashire and Birmingham succeeded in making the Parliament enact a law prohibiting the import of Indian textiles. Those who were found in possession of or dealing in Indian cotton goods were fined 200 pounds. In the 1750 and the early 1760, Robert Clive gained control of the wealthiest part of the old Mughal Empire. The Company exacted concessions such as exemption of Company goods from transit duties, which even Indian merchants had to pay. After the Battle of Plassey (1757), the Company got 1.2 million pounds out of which Clive himself took 31,500 pounds besides a jagir which provided an annual income of 27,000 pounds. After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Murshidabad treasury was looted. The Company acquired the Diwani right in 1765 and became the revenue farmer of the Mughal Emperor

b. Industrial Capitalist Phase: 1st half of the Nineteenth Century

By the beginning of nineteenth century the Company had emerged as a territorial power. During this period India was converted into a market for British textiles and a great source of raw materials. The Company government's expansionist policies led to wars against regional rulers. The cost of these internal conquests was imposed on India.

Financial Capitalist Phase: 2nd half of the Nineteenth Century

During this phase managing agency firms, export-import firms, and exchange banks began to prosper. In its bid to provide an outlet to the investible surplus capital in England, the Company government decided to make a massive investment in railroads, the postal system, irrigation, modern banking and education. The capital exported was predominantly for railway construction. The railways helped to move British troops quickly across the country. It also enabled the conquest of the Indian market to the maximum extent. Slavery was abolished in India (1843) and the system of indentured labour was introduced.

11.4 Economic Impact of British Rule

Agrarian Conditions

Governor General Cornwallis, himself a big landlord in England, wanted to create landlords in India on the English model. There were already revenue farmers under the Mughals. Cornwallis came to a settlement with them, treating them as landlords. The outcome was that for the first time in India there was a class of zamindars or landlords with a right to own, bequeath and inherit land. The cultivators, on the other hand, were reduced to the position of mere tenants. The British dealt with the landlords or zamindars directly, and gave them total freedom to do what they liked with their tenants. This settlement made with the zamindars of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa is called the Permanent Settlement (1793).

The Ryotwari System was a different revenue system introduced in south India. Under the system, the peasant was the proprietor and paid tax on the land. The government dealt with him directly, without the intervention of a middleman or a tax-farmer. He was entitled to remain in possession of land acquired by him so long as he paid the land revenue. In case of default, apart from eviction and attachment of livestock, even household property or personal belongings could be attached. The Ryotwari System introduced the concept of private property in land. The individual holders were registered and permitted to sell, lease out, mortgage or transfer their right over the land.

Land Revenue and the Pauperisation of Peasantry

The land tax which was the main source of revenue to the British was collected forcibly. Even in times of famines no remission was given to the peasants. They had to even mortgage or sell their property including their land to pay the landlord's rent and the land tax. As no credit facilities were provided by the state, they had to depend on moneylenders to borrow money. A system of money lending was followed by professional money-lenders who belonged to various communities such as mahajans, sahukars, and bohras. In the Tamil speaking areas there were Nattukottai Chettiyars

The colonial state pursued a policy of 'commercialization of agriculture'. Commercial crops like cotton, jute, groundnuts, oilseeds, sugarcane, tobacco, etc., depending on the market demands fetched better prices than food grains. So in his bid to clear his debt and to pay up the revenue dues to the state, instead of producing for home consumption, the peasant began to raise crops for the market. He had to depend on the price trend in international markets for selling his agricultural goods. Ignorant of market forces the peasants often came to distress, when the demand in the local market, which was now linked to the world market, crashed.

Do You Know?

Colonel Pennycuick was an army Engineer and Civil Servant who also served as a member of the Madras Legislative Council. He decided to divert the west-flowing Periyar river draining into the Arabian Sea to the east so that it could irrigate lakhs of acres of dry land dependent on the Vaigai river. Though Pennycuick and other British engineers went ahead with the construction, braving nature's fury and the dangers of poisonous insects and wild animals, the construction was disrupted by relentless rain. Since he could not get adequate funds from the British government, Pennycuick went to England and sold his family property to mobilise money to fund the project, which was completed in 1895. The Mullai Periyar Dam continues to irrigate agricultural lands in Theni, Dindigul, Madurai, Sivaganga and Ramanathapuram districts.

Irrigation

The British neglected irrigation in the first half of nineteenth century. Major irrigation canals were built only after millions of people died in a series of major famines that broke out periodically from the middle of 19th century. Even then the money earmarked for irrigation was meagre, but due to the initiative of some well meaning British officials and engineers like Arthur Cotton, and later Pennycuick guaranteed protected irrigation became possible in certain areas. Even where such efforts were taken, the British collected an extra cess adding to the misery of the peasants who were already groaning under the oppressive land revenue system.

Famines

The policy of free trade and the forcible collection of land revenue resulted in the outbreak of famines. The Odisha famine of 1866–67, was a severe and terrible event in the history of that region in which about a third of the population died. The famine of 1876–78, also known as the Great Famine of 1876–78 (called Thathu Varusha Panjam in Tamil), caused a large migration of agricultural labourers and artisans from southern India to British colonies, where they worked as indentured labourers on plantations. The death toll—about 10.3 million—was huge.

In the Madras Presidency, the famine of 1876-78 was preceded by droughts. The situation was made worse because of the colonial government's policy of laissez faire in the trade of food-grains. For example, two of the worst famine-afflicted areas in the Madras Presidency, the districts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam, continued to export grains throughout the famine. These famines were typically followed by various infectious diseases such as bubonic plague (spread by dead rats) and influenza, which attacked and killed a population already weakened by starvation. The memory of this famine is still preserved in various folk songs and ballads.

Do You Know?

Famines in British India: The Bengal famine of 1770, took a heavy toll of about 10 million people or nearly one-third of the population in Bengal. This is how British rule commenced in India. Similarly the British rule ended with a terrible Bengal famine of 1943 that claimed the lives of nearly three millions. Amartya Sen, awarded the Nobel Prize in 1998, who as a young boy saw people dying on the streets of Kolkata wrote a path-breaking study of it

Indentured Labour

The Indentured Labour System was a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to various British colonies to provide labour for the plantations (mainly sugar). It started from 1843, the year of abolition of slavery in India and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a large Indian diaspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (Reunion and Mauritius) to Pacific Ocean (Fiji), as well as contributing to the growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African population

The Indenture system was a penal contract system. The contract made punishable the refusal of an indentured labourer to work or his abstention from work, or his defiance of the orders of his master or absconding, by forfeiture of wages or imprisonment with or without hard labour. Between 1842 and 1870 a total of 525,482 Indians emigrated to the British and French Colonies. Of these, 351,401 went to Mauritius, 76,691 went to Demerara, 42,519 went to Trinidad, 15,169 went to Jamaica, 6,448 went to Natal, 15,005 went to Reunion and 16,341 went to the other French colonies. This figure does not include the 30,000 who went to Mauritius earlier, labourers who went to Ceylon or Malaya and illegal recruitment to the French colonies. Thus by 1870 the indenture system, transporting Indian labour to the colonies, was an established system of providing virtual slaves for European colonial plantations.

Recap

• The rivalry of the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English to possess colonies in Malayan Peninsula is dealt with
• The Dutch establishment of their base at Djakarta and gradually extending their control over Java and Sumatra (Indonesia) is discussed
• The British from its base in Penang taking in its possession the Federated Malay States, the Straits Settlements and Burma is dwelt on
• Spain initially colonising Philippines which was later taken by the US is pointed out
• Britain conquering first Natal, Cape Colony and later the coastal states of Gold Coast, the Dutch holding the states of Transvaal and Orange Free State are described
• The British settling in Johannesburg and coming into conflict with the Boers resulting in Boer Wars are highlighted
• Britain founding a colony in Bechuanaland and later crushing the resistance of the Africans taking over it and naming it Rhodesia is focused on
• French with its initial possession of Senegal annexing Guinea, Ivory Coast and Dahomey (today part of Benin in African Union); Congo being handed over to the Belgians which was ruled by Leopold, all pertaining to West Africa, are detailed
• British Kenya, Uganda, and Zanzibar, German East Africa, the Portuguese colonisation of Angola and Mozambique, along with Portuguese Guinea are dwelt on
• How the Indian economy was colonialised in the aftermath of the establishment of British rule through three different successive phases is explained
• The onslaught of British colonialism on agrarian conditions of India resulting in impoverishment of peasantry and outbreak of famines forcing them to emigrate to colonies of British Empire as indentured labourers

EXERCISE

Exercise 1. Choose the correct answer.

1. _____ was brought to the attention of the East India Company by Francis Light.

a. Spice islands b. Java island c. Penang island d. Malacca

2. In 1896 _____ states were formed into Federated Malay States

a. Four b. Five c. Three d. Six

3. _____ was the only part of Indo-China which was directly under French Control

a. Annam b. Tong king c. Cambodia d. Cochin-China

4. The Discovery of gold in the _____ led to a large number of British miners settled in and around Johannesburg.

a. Transvaal b. Orange Free State c. Cape Colony d. Rhodesia

5. _____ became the first European power to establish trade with India

a. Portuguese b. French c. Danes d. Dutch

6. Indentured labour system was a form of _____

a. contract labour system b. slavery c. debt bondage d. serfdom Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks

1. Conference resolved to divide Africa into spheres of influence of the various European Powers.

2. The settlement made with the zamindars of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa is

3. was the main source of revenue for the British.

4. were money lenders in the Tamil speaking areas.

Exercise 3. Find out the correct statement

1. (1) Until the last quarter of the 19th century, Africa south of Sahara was unknown to the world. (2). The coastal states of Gold Coast became a British colony in 1864. (3). Spain ruled the Philippines for over 500 years. (4). The famine of 1876–78 occurred in Odhisha.

a. (1) is Correct b. (2). is Correct c. (2). & (3). are correct d. (4). is correct

2. (1) The French had occupied Java and Sumatra in 1640. (2). The Dutch began their conquest of the English Settlements by capturing Malacca . (3). Berlin Conference met to decide all issues connected with the Congo River basin. (4). The possessions of Sultan of Zanzibar were divided into French and German spheres of influence.

a. (1) is correct b. (1) & (2). are correct c. (3). is correct d. (4). is correct

Assertion (A): In the Madras Presidency, the famine of 1876-78 was preceded by droughts.
Reason (R) : Because of the colonial government's policy of Laissez Faire in the trade of food-grains.

a. A is correct, R is wrong b. Both A & R are wrong c. A is correct , R is not the correct explanation of A d. A is correct, R is the correct explanation of A

4. Assertion (A): Berlin Conference agreed to the rule of Leopold II in Congo Free State.
Reason (R): Leopold II, King of Belgium, showed interest in Congo.

a. Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A. b. Both A and R are correct and R is not the correct explanation of A c. A is correct and R is wrong. d. A is wrong but R is correct Exercise (4). Match the following

1. Leopold
2. Menelik
3. Cecil Rhodes
4. Bengal famine
5. Bao Dai

Options: Ethiopia, Vietnam, Belgium, Cape colony, 1770

Exercise (5). Answer the following briefly

1. Distinguish between Colonialism and Imperialism.

2. Write a note on Zulu tribe.

3. State the three phases in the Colonialisation of Indian economy.

4. Colonel Pennycuick.

5. Explain Home Charges.

Exercise (6). Answer in detail

1. Discuss the economic impact of British Rule in India.

2. Explain the process of colonisation in Africa.

FUN WITH HISTORY

Student Activities

Prepare an album with pictures and images of famines that affected different parts of India during the British colonial rule.

Student Activities

Attempt an account of the cultural relations between India and Southeast Asia.

Assignment with teacher's guidance

Arrange a debate in the class room on the merits and demerits of the British rule in India.

Assignment with teacher's guidance

Explore the impact of colonialism in British Burma.

REFERENCES

1. Irfan Habib, A People's History of India Series - Indian Economy under Early British Rule, 1757-1857, Tulika.
2. Irfan Habib, Essays In Indian History, Manohar
3. Irfan Habib, Indian Economy, 1858- 1914, Tulika
4. D.G.E. Hall, A History of Southeast Asia, Macmillan
5. R.D. Cornwell, World History in the Twentieth Century, Longman, 1980

INTERNET RESOURCES

• https: //www.ukessays.com (The Political Economy: Decolonisation in India.
• http:// www.seasite.niu.edu/crossroads/wilson/ colonialism.htm (Constance Wilson, Colonialism and Nationalism in Southeast Asia.

GLOSSARY

Assemblage (n) A collection of artefacts and other objects unearthed from archaeological sites. Aboriginal (adj) One living on a land from earliest times. Ascetic (adj) Self discipline avoiding any physical pleasure Austere (adj) Simple and plain Abdicate (v) Give up Allegiance (n) Loyalty Abortive (adj) Unsuccessful Bureaucracy (n) Government by unelected officials Cardinal (adj) Fundamental Cartel (n) A monopolistic association of manufacturers Chiefdom (n) A hierarchical political formation and it is larger than the tribe level formation. Clad (adj) Clothed (dressed) Commemorate (v) Celebrate the memory of a person or an event Confederacy (n) An alliance, especially of states Diaspora (n) Persons dispersed from their homeland Dissension (n) Disagreement Dock (n) A structure extending along shore or out from the shore into a body of water, to which boats are moored Dogmatic (adj) Clinging to principles as incontrovertibly true / opinionated Embossed (adj) Carved Emboldened (v) Giving the courage or confidence to do something Emporium (n) A large commercial complex selling a wide variety of goods Entrepreneurial class (n) A group characterised by the taking of financial risks in the hope of profit Encyclopaedia (n) A book containing a set of articles on many subjects and arranged alphabetically Epoch (n) A period of time in history Estampage (n) The process of making copies of inscriptions using paper and ink. Flogging (n) Beat (someone) with whip or stick as punishment or torture Frustrated (adj) Expressing feelings of despair Guillotine (n) A machine with a heavy blade used for beheading people Heresy (n) Opinion which goes against the accepted belief Incorporated (adj) Included Impoverished (adj) Poverty stricken Intriguing (adj) Puzzling Manhunt (n) An organized search for a person Migrants (n) Persons who moved from one place to another in search of livelihood or for settlement Molasses (n) Thick dark brown syrup obtained from raw sugar during the refining process Oligarchy (n) A small group of people having control of a state Pauperized (v) Keeping alive, continuing indefinitely Penetration (n) Entry with force Penultimate (adj) Last but one Perpetuating (v) Keeping alive, continuing indefinitely Piety (n) Religious devotion Proliferation (n) Increase in great numbers or large amounts Proponents (n) Persons advocating a theory or a proposal Rationale (n) Reasons or a logical basis for a course of action Reconcile (v) To agree to Relinquish (v) voluntarily To give up a post or office Remittance (n) A sum of money sent, especially by mail in payment for goods or services or as a gift Repealed (v) Cancelled Resentment (n) Fury / Anger Slaughter (n) Killing animals for food Smelting (n) Heating and melting ore to extract metal Subjugation (n) Bring a person or a country under control Subsistence (n) Means minimum requirements for maintaining human existence. Suzerainty (n) The control of one country over another country Tribe (n) A community of people who live in a region connected by kinship ties. They are linked by social, economic, religious or blood relationships. They share a common culture and dialect, under the control of a chief. Tricked (v) Cheated Tutelage (n) Guardianship Vehement (adj) Forceful

Book-back Exercises — Questions & Answers

Answers generated strictly from the Samacheer Kalvi textbook content. Attempt each question first, then click "Show Answer" to check.

1. Choose the correct answer

1. _________ was brought to the attention of the East India Company by Francis Light.

a) Spice islands b) Java island c) Penang island d) Malacca

Answer: c) Penang island

Explanation: Penang Island had been brought to the attention of the East India Company by Francis Light.

2. In 1896 _______ states were formed into Federated Malay States

a) Four b) Five c) Three d) Six

Answer: a) Four

Explanation: In 1896 four of the states were formed into the Federated Malay States.

3. _________ was the only part of Indo-China which was directly under French Control

a) Annam b) Tongking c) Cambodia d) Cochin-China

Answer: d) Cochin-China

Explanation: Of them only Cochin-China was directly under French control, i.e., as a French colony.

4. The Discovery of gold in the _______ led to a large number of British miners settled in and around Johannesburg.

a) Transvaal b) Orange Free State c) Cape Colony d) Rhodesia

Answer: a) Transvaal

Explanation: In 1886 the discovery of gold in the Transvaal led to a large number of British miners settling in and around Johannesburg.

5. _______ became the first European power to establish trade with India

a) Portuguese b) French c) Danes d) Dutch

Answer: a) Portuguese

Explanation: Towards the close of the 15th century, Portugal became the first European power to establish a trade link with India.

6. Indentured labour system was a form of _______

a) contract labour system b) slavery c) debt bondage d) serfdom

Answer: c) debt bondage

Explanation: The Indentured Labour System was a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to various British colonies to provide labour for the plantations.

2. Fill in the blanks

1. _______ Conference resolved to divide Africa into spheres of influence of the various European Powers.

Answer: Berlin

2. The settlement made with the zamindars of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa is _______

Answer: Permanent Settlement (1793)

3. _______ was the main source of revenue for the British.

Answer: Land tax

4. _______ were money lenders in the Tamil speaking areas.

Answer: Nattukottai Chettiyars

3. Find out the correct statement

1. (1) Until the last quarter of the 19th century, Africa south of Sahara was unknown to the world. (2) The coastal states of Gold Coast became a British colony in 1864. (3) Spain ruled the Philippines for over 500 years. (4) The famine of 1876–78 occurred in Odisha.

a) (1) is Correct b) (2) is Correct c) (2) & (3) are correct d) (4) is correct

Answer: a) (1) is Correct

Explanation: Until the last quarter of nineteenth century, Africa south of the Sahara (Sub-Saharan Africa) was almost unknown to the outside world.

2. (1) The French had occupied Java and Sumatra in 1640. (2) The Dutch began their conquest of the English Settlements by capturing Malacca. (3) Berlin Conference met to decide all issues connected with the Congo River basin. (4) The possessions of Sultan of Zanzibar were divided into French and German spheres of influence.

a) (1) is correct b) (1) & (2) are correct c) (3) is correct d) (4) is correct

Answer: c) (3) is correct

Explanation: The Berlin Conference of 1884–85, also known as the Congo Conference or West Africa Conference, met to decide all issues connected with the Congo River basin in Central Africa.

3. Assertion (A): In the Madras Presidency, the famine of 1876-78 was preceded by droughts. Reason (R): Because of the colonial government's policy of Laissez Faire in the trade of food-grains.

a) A is correct, R is wrong b) Both A & R are wrong c) A is correct, R is not the correct explanation of A d) A is correct, R is the correct explanation of A

Answer: d) A is correct, R is the correct explanation of A

Explanation: In the Madras Presidency, the famine of 1876-78 was preceded by droughts. The situation was made worse because of the colonial government's policy of laissez faire in the trade of food-grains.

4. Assertion (A): Berlin Conference agreed to the rule of Leopold II in Congo Free State. Reason (R): Leopold II, King of Belgium, showed interest in Congo.

a) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A. b) Both A and R are correct and R is not the correct explanation of A c) A is correct and R is wrong. d) A is wrong but R is correct

Answer: a) Both A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A.

Explanation: Leopold 2, king of Belgium, showed interest in Congo and so the Berlin Conference agreed to the rule of Leopold in Congo Free State.

4. Match the following

1. Match the Following

1. Leopold	Ethiopia
2. Menelik	Vietnam
3. Cecil Rhodes	Belgium
4. Bengal famine	Cape colony
5. Bao Dai	1770

Answers: 1-Belgium, 2-Ethiopia, 3-Cape colony, 4-1770, 5-Vietnam

5. Answer the following briefly

1. Distinguish between Colonialism and Imperialism.

Answer: The term colony comes from the Latin word colonus, meaning farmer. Colonialism usually involved the transfer of population to a new territory, where the arrivals lived as permanent settlers while maintaining political allegiance to their country of origin. Imperialism, on the other hand, draws attention to the way one country exercises power over another, whether through settlement, sovereignty, or indirect mechanisms of control.

2. Write a note on Zulu tribe.

Answer: The Zulu tribe was known for its strong fighting spirit, represented by renowned warriors like Shaka Zulu who played a prominent role in building the largest Zulu nation in south-eastern Africa. British troops invaded Zulu territory and divided it into thirteen chiefdoms. The Zulus never regained their independence and had to fight against deeply entrenched racism in South Africa.

3. State the three phases in the Colonialisation of Indian economy.

Answer: The process of the colonialisation of India can be divided into three phases: Phase 1 - Mercantilist Capitalism (18th Century), Phase 2 - Industrial Capitalism (1st half of the Nineteenth Century), and Phase 3 - Financial Capitalism (2nd half of the Nineteenth Century).

4. Colonel Pennycuick.

Answer: Colonel Pennycuick was an army Engineer and Civil Servant who decided to divert the west-flowing Periyar river to the east so that it could irrigate lakhs of acres of dry land. When he could not get adequate funds from the British government, Pennycuick sold his family property to fund the project, which was completed in 1895.

5. Explain Home Charges.

Answer: Refer to the chapter text for this answer.

6. Answer in detail

1. Discuss the economic impact of British Rule in India.

Answer: British rule created landlords in India through the Permanent Settlement, reducing cultivators to tenants. The land tax was forcibly collected even during famines, forcing peasants to depend on moneylenders. Commercialization of agriculture made peasants grow cash crops for international markets, leading to distress when prices crashed. The British neglected irrigation initially, and major canals were built only after famines killed millions. The policy of free trade and forcible revenue collection resulted in severe famines like the Odisha famine of 1866-67 and the Great Famine of 1876-78, which killed millions and forced migration of laborers as indentured workers.

2. Explain the process of colonisation in Africa.

Answer: After 1875, European penetration and colonisation of Africa began on a large scale. The Berlin Colonial Conference of 1884-85 resolved to divide Africa into spheres of influence of various European powers. This period from 1881-1914 is called the Scramble for Africa. The British possessed South Africa, the Dutch held Transvaal and Orange Free State, leading to the Boer War. The British founded colonies in West Africa including Gold Coast and Nigeria. The French possessed Senegal, Guinea, Ivory Coast and Dahomey. Belgium's Leopold II ruled Congo Free State. In East Africa, Britain controlled Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar while Germans established German East Africa. Only Ethiopia and Liberia avoided European colonialism.

📝 Summary

1. Colonialism involves the subjugation of one people by another, with colonizers transferring population to new territories while maintaining political allegiance to their country of origin, while imperialism refers to one country exercising power over another through various control mechanisms.
2. South East Asia, a term used since World War II, originally covered Malaya, Dutch East Indies, Burma, Siam, French Indo-China and the Philippines, with all areas except Siam (Thailand) being divided between Dutch, British and French colonial powers.
3. European colonization of the Malaya Peninsula began when Portuguese conquered Malacca in the late 15th century for the spice trade, building fortified trading stations linked by naval power without initially interfering with native rulers.
4. Dutch colonial expansion dominated the 17th century as they captured Malacca from the Portuguese in 1641, established a base at Batavia in 1619, extended control over Java, and expelled the British from various territories including Bantam in 1682 and the Spice Islands after the Massacre of Amboina in 1623.
5. British expansion into the Malay Peninsula began in 1786 with Francis Light's settlement of George Town at Penang Island's northeastern tip, followed by Stamford Raffles establishing Singapore as a key British trading post in 1819.