The Age Of Revolutions
Class 9 | Social Science — History | Unit 9
Class 9 Unit 9 History
UNIT 9 The Age of Revolutions
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge of
1. The American War of Independence
The foundation of colonies by European powers in America and the later amalgamation and formation of 13 colonies under Britain
Factors leading to the conflict between the colonies and England
The opposition of the colonies to 'Taxation without Representation' leading to American War of Independence
The course and outcome of the American War of Independence
The American Revolution and the idea of democracy in the modern world
2.The French Revolution
The causes for the outbreak of French Revolution, political, social, economic and intellectual
Circumstances leading to the convening of Estates General and the defiance of Third Estate to the orders of the French Monarch Louis XVI
The Tennis Court Oath and Fall of Bastille resulting in the overthrow of monarchy and establishment of National Assembly
The National Assembly and the conspiracy of the dethroned king with other European powers to crush the revolution, leading to invasion of France by Austria and Prussia. Formation of revolutionary government of National Convention.
Execution of Louis 16 and proclamation of Republic in France.
Abolition of feudalism, confiscation of church property, declaration of the rights of citizens and the introduction of a constitution.
Jacobins capturing power and the dictatorial functioning of Robespierre.
The fall of Robespierre and the end of Revolution
9.1 American War of Independence
Introduction
Three great revolutions in the eighteenth century brought about striking changes in Western Society: The American Revolution, the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. The American Revolution was the first political revolution. Though not so vital as the French Revolution, which was to shake the social foundations of Europe, the political changes engendered by the American Revolution provided inspiration for other anti-colonial struggles. Thomas Jefferson, who drafted the "Declaration of Independence," asserted even at the beginning of 1776 that Americans had 'neither wish nor interest to separate from English monarchy'. In July 1776 the same Jefferson got his Declaration of Independence adopted at a "Continental Congress" of the 13 colonies with its assertion that 'all men are created equal.' It was a revolutionary statement at a time when respect to kings and nobles was universal. In this lesson we trace the foundation of English colonies in America and narrate the revolt of the colonies.
Colonies of European Powers
The Portuguese and the Spanish were the pioneers in geographical explorations and the founding of colonies. The English lagged far behind in their colonisation efforts. The English possessed a theoretical claim to the North American mainland in view of the voyage of John Cabot (1497) off the coast of Nova Scotia. But they neither had the means nor the desire to back up that claim during the 16th century. Jamestown was the first British colony in America (1607). The ship Mayflower had taken a batch of Puritans from Plymouth, England, to America in 1620. They landed in the north and called the place New Plymouth. Another Puritan group led by John Winthrop set up the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Reformers who led a religious movement to reform the Church of England dispensing with the teachings and practices of Roman Catholic Church were known as Puritans. The Stuart kings, James I and Charles I, did not tolerate their attempts to reform the Church of England. The persecution of Puritans prompted many to leave England and settle. In the colonies they founded they organized a Puritan way of life. Many other groups before the Puritans had reached other parts of the North American coastline and soon many more followed, till there were colonies dotted all over the east coast from north to south. There were catholic colonies, and colonies founded by Cavalier nobles from England and Quaker colonies (Pennsylvania was named after the Quaker Penn). Quakers were members of a Christian group called the Society of Friends who, while laying emphasis on the Holy Spirit, rejected outward rites and an ordained ministry. George Fox was the founder of the society in England. Quakers have the reputation of actively working for peace and opposing war. The Dutch founded a town and called it New Amsterdam. The English later changed the name to New York. There were also Germans, Danes and Frenchmen. By the end of the eighteenth century, there were thirteen colonies on the east coast all under British control. The 13 colonies (from north to south) were: Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. By 1775, the population of the thirteen colonies had grown steadily reaching nearly 3 million, a third of Britain's population.
Plantations and the Slave Labour
As the Native Americans resisted attempts to make them work in the plantations, the European planters, chiefly of tobacco, in the southern states– Virginia, Carolinas and Georgia– in their search for labour resorted to acquiring slaves from Africa. The innocent people of Africa were captured in man-hunts and sent across the seas in a cruel and inhuman manner. In the northern States conditions were different. There were compact farms, and not huge plantations as in the south. Large numbers of workers were not needed for these farms. Thus two economic systems developed in these colonies. Native Americans had no place in either of these. So these people were gradually pushed back to the west. This was made easier by the disunity and divisions among the Native American tribes.
Increasing incidence of Taxation
Each colony had a Governor and the legislatures acted as a check on his powers. Thus, initially, there was no conflict between the British and American interests. The English King and many big landowners in England had large financial interests in these colonies. The Seven Years War of 1756-63 between Britain and France had centred on the control of colonies, especially in North America. Britain defeated France and took control of Canada. But the war cost the English heavily. The British ministers proposed that the American colonists pay some of the cost of the war. So a series of taxes were imposed on the colonists. It should be noted that the Americans did not have representation in the British Parliament.
Do You Know?
Even before the arrival of Europeans in America, there was an indigenous population, called Native Americans (they used to be referred to as 'Red Indians'; it is now considered demeaning, and historians do not use this term any more), spread over the vast American continent. They belonged to various tribes and many of them were at war with each other. Besides they refused to work under conditions of slavery. Through a combination of violence and diplomacy Europeans conquered and defeated many of these tribes. Greatly reduced in numbers today they live in various reserves.
The Sugar Act of 1764 prohibited and imposed duties on molasses, wines, silks, coffee and other luxury items. As the Act was enforced ruthlessly, it led to protests by merchants in legislatures and town meetings. The preamble of the Sugar Act provided the slogan 'No Taxation without representation'. Soon the Currency Act was passed that insisted on colonies repaying the debt only in gold or silver. It was a huge burden on the colonial economy. The Quartering Act of 1765 required the colonies to pay for the cost of keeping British troops in America. The Stamp Act (1765) required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper produced in London, carrying an embossed revenue stamp.
Townshend Acts
The British Finance Minister Charles Townshend introduced new duties on imports in 1767, known as the Townshend Acts. They introduced duties on imports to colonies such as glass, paper, paint, lead and tea. Further, the British officers were empowered to search homes and businesses for smuggled or illegal goods. There were widespread protests against the Townshend Acts. Merchants of Boston organized boycott of British goods. Soon other colonies joined the protest. The women formed their own organization called the 'Daughters of Liberty'. The leaders insisted on constitutional methods and asked the people to remain calm. The British mobilized more troops to encounter the protests. This angered the people further. In March 1770, resentment rose in Boston, when troops fired on a crowd which had thrown snowballs at them. There was firing by the troops resulting in many deaths. This incident is known as the Boston Massacre. It led to intense anti-British propaganda through newspapers, posters and pamphlets. As a result of protests and boycotts, the British Parliament repealed the Townshend Acts. However, it retained the tax on tea, with the intention of encouraging the business of the East India Company by making it easy for it to take its tea to America and sell it there. This harmed the local tea trade and so it was decided to boycott this foreign tea.
Boston Tea Party
In many places the colonists obstructed the import of tea. In Charlestown, they unloaded the tea and let it rot in the dock. In New York and Philadelphia ships carrying tea were blocked. In December 1773, a group of men disguised themselves as Native Americans boarded the cargo vessels and threw the tea overboard Hailed as the Boston Tea Party, this was done publicly before a large sympathetic crowd. It was a challenge which led to war between the rebellious colonies and England.
American War of Independence
In 1774, a little before war began between the colonies and England, George Washington stated that no thinking man in North America desired independence. And yet he became the colonists' commander-in-chief and later the first president of the American Republic. So the colonies did not begin fighting for the sake of independence. Their grievances were taxation and restrictions on trade. They challenged the right of the British Parliament to tax them against their will. "No taxation without representation" was their famous battle cry.
First Continental Congress, September 5, 1774
Disturbed by the developments in Boston harbour, the British government appointed General Gage as governor of Massachusetts with a mandate to quell the resistance. It also dispatched troops to Boston and passed the Intolerable Acts which decreed that all those who broke the laws would be taken to Britain for trial. In May 1774, in the Virginia Assembly, Thomas Jefferson declared that 1 June 1774 would be a day of fasting and prayer. In response to this declaration, the colonial governor dissolved the assembly. Thereafter, the members drafted a resolution to form the Continental Congress. Soon members joined from other colonies. On 5 September 1774 the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. The Congress agreed to vote by the representatives of colonies and endorsed the resolution declaring the Intolerable Act null and void. It called for economic sanctions against the British. The Congress adopted a Declaration of American Rights.
Second Continental Congress, May 10, 1775
The Second Continental Congress met on 10 May 1775 at Philadelphia. John Adams, Sam Adams, Richard Henry Lee and Thomas Jefferson were some of prominent members of the Congress. It organized the army gathered around Boston as the Continental Army and placed it under the command of George Washington. Still hoping for a truce, the Congress dispatched 'the Olive Branch Petition' to the king and adopted the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking up Arms. As the war progressed, the Continental Congress assumed the functions of government. In July 1775, it appointed Commissioners to negotiate with Native Americans. It also established a Postal Department with Benjamin Franklin as Postmaster-General. A Committee was formed to explore the possibility of foreign aid.
Battle of Bunker Hill
On 17 June 1775 the Battle of Bunker Hill, the first major battle was fought in Massachusetts. The 2200 strong British troops were twice forced to retreat. On the third attempt British troops emerged victorious with a heavy casualty of nearly 1000 soldiers. After the battle Washington assumed control of the American forces. Soon the British forces retreated from Boston.
Declaration of Independence
In January 1776, an anonymous pamphlet under the title Common Sense was published. It was authored by Thomas Paine who had recently migrated to America from England. It attacked the allegiance to the Crown and called for complete independence. More than 100,000 copies of the pamphlet were sold quickly. George Washington remarked, "Common Sense is working a powerful change in the minds of men." On June 7, 1776 Richard Henry Lee of Virginia moved a resolution for independence. After much debate the Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted by the Congress on July 4, 1776. This day is celebrated by the Americans as Independence Day.
War
On 2 July 1776, the British under General. Howe attempted to regain what they had lost. Washington was forced to evacuate Long Island. The main American army managed to reach Pennsylvania. While Howe waited in New York for the winter to pass, Washington made a daring attack on Christmas night at Trenton. The British forces were defeated in Princeton.
French Alliance
In 1777 the British attempts at splitting the colonies into two by a campaign from the north failed. However, they managed to occupy Philadelphia. Washington's efforts to take a town near Philadelphia were spoiled by Lord Cornwallis. But the British were defeated at Saratoga. This defeat paved the way for an alliance between France and the Americans. On 6 February 1778, France and America signed two treaties by which France recognized the United States of America and offered trade concessions. By June 1778 England and France were at war.
Victory at Yorktown
In September Washington attacked Yorktown, with a combined American and French troops. On 19 October 1781 Cornwallis surrendered. In 1783, the Peace of Paris was signed. Great Britain agreed to the independence of the United States. The military band played the tune 'The World Turned Upside Down' as British forces departed from Yorktown in 1781.
Cornwallis:
Born into an aristocratic family and educated at Eton and Cambridge, Cornwallis joined the army in 1757. Upon his father's death in 1762 he became Earl Cornwallis and entered the House of Lords, the upper house of Britain. His military action in the American War of Independence was praiseworthy, inflicting defeats on the American army in a few battles though finally he had to surrender his army at Yorktown. Despite this defeat, Cornwallis retained the confidence of successive British governments and continued to enjoy an active career. Knighted in 1786, he was appointed Governor General by the East India Company government in British India.
Results
The immediate result of the war was America's independence. For the first time a colonial power was overthrown by the colonised, leading to the establishment of a republican government in the United States. The colonists wanted to get rid of the feudal inequalities of Europe and they succeeded. For many followers of the Enlightenment in Europe, the language of the Declaration of Independence seemed a living fulfillment of their ideals. The Declaration of Independence of 1776 stated that "all men are born equal." By 1777 nearly all the colonies had a written constitution. These constitutions protected individual rights, freedom of press and freedom of religion. The Continental Congress had drafted the Articles of Confederation. The Church and the State were separated. Thomas Jefferson in his Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom introduced freedom of religion. It was later incorporated into the American Constitution. Lafayette, who fought the British on Washington's side through to the conclusive battle at Yorktown in 1781, later during the French Revolution served the French National Guard as its Commander. He penned the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, with the help of Jefferson, which the National Assembly of France adopted on August 27, 1789.
9.2 The French Revolution
Introduction
The French Revolution exploded in 1789. The French monarchy of the ancien regime (political and social system that prevailed in France before the Revolution of 1789) had enjoyed unchallenged power for 140 years. Louis XIV and his great palace at Versailles had symbolized royal absolutism and the greatness of France. Yet, in the summer of 1789, that power suddenly begun to shake. Louis XVI had summoned the Estates General in May 1789. This body consisted of the representatives of three classes or "estates," as they were called: the clergy (men and women ordained for religious duties), the nobles and the commons (comprising lawyers, rich merchants, bankers and businessmen and wealthy landowners). But the representatives of the third estate, namely the commons had refused either to bow to the nobles or to obey the orders of the King. They proclaimed themselves a National Assembly and gathering on a tennis court after the King had cleared them out of their hall, swore on oath not to disperse until he gave them a constitution. Thus began the revolution of 1789 in France.
Causes of the Outbreak
Political
Louis 15 succeeded his great-grandfather Louis 14 and reigned for fifty-nine years. He learnt no lesson that the king is not above law but bound by law from the English Revolution and the beheading of the King Charles 1. In 1774 he was succeeded by his grandson Louis 16. He was entirely under the influence of his wife Marie Antoinette, who believed, more than the King, in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship - the theory that the king was representative of god on earth and therefore for all his actions he was accountable only to god and not to anybody else. Both the King and the Queen were hated by the people.
Economic
On the eve of the French revolution France was going through a period of economic crisis. The French treasury was bankrupt because of its involvement in the Seven Years War that ended in defeat. French participation in the American War of Independence made the financial condition worse. The luxurious lifestyle of the royalty and nobles in Versailles court, in contrast to the grinding poverty of the common people, made the people accept the new ideologies of French philosophers of the eighteenth century. The Finance Ministers of the King, Turgot, Necker, Calonne and Brienne one after the other suggested reduction of royal expenditure and taxation of the first two Estates - the nobles and the clergy. Their advice was not only disregarded but they themselves were dismissed from service. To meet the resource, crunch the government borrowed heavily resulting in a huge fiscal deficit. Nearly half the revenue went towards payment of interest for the loans. Under the circumstances, the French monarch Louis 16 was forced to convene the Estate-General, the combined body of three estates comprising nobles, clergy and commoners respectively.
Social
The condition of the already impoverished peasants worsened due to a series of bad harvests. It resulted in the rise of the price of bread. The peasants of the countryside and the labourers and artisans of the towns were the worst affected. There were hunger riots at the beginning of the reign of Louis 16. They were followed later by fresh peasant risings. A vast number of people had become professional beggars. It was officially declared in 1777 that there were eleven lakhs of beggars in France. The peasants were hungry not only for food, but were also hungry for land. They hated the nobles and the clergy because they enjoyed many privileges, notably exemption from taxation. The clergy, despite being a minority, numbering only about 130,000, occupied a preeminent position in France. They collected tithe (one tenth of the annual produce or earnings) from the common people. The nobility, also a minority, numbering about 110,000, was a landowning class enjoying feudal rights. They collected feudal dues from the peasants. Their land was tilled by the peasants. The farm produces of the peasants had to be processed in the mills of the feudal lord. The traditional hereditary nobles known as nobles of the sword enjoyed hunting rights. They were against the rising middle class (bourgeoisie) or a new class of nobility, the status that was conferred by the king for their services. These nobles were known as nobles of the robe. The middle class and the peasants together formed the Third Estate. The bourgeoisie (the capitalist class) were the privileged few but the bulk of the Third Estate was constituted by the representatives of peasants. The peasants paid taxes to the state such as taille (land tax), gabelle (salt tax), etc., and provided free labour (corvee) for the construction of public roads. Burdened by the demands of the state, nobility and clergy, the peasants were in despair at the prospect of dying of starvation.
Inspiration from French Philosophers
There were many notable thinkers and writers in France in the eighteenth century. The most famous writer of the time on rationalistic and scientific subjects was Voltaire (1694-1778). When imprisoned and banished, he had to live at Ferney near Geneva. Voltaire, Montesquieu (1689-1755) and Rousseau criticized the then existing conditions in France. Voltaire, was a prolific writer and activist, and was vehement in his criticism of the Church. His most famous work was Candide. His famous quote was: "those who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities." He is said to have once exclaimed, "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it." Another great writer, a contemporary of Voltaire, but younger than him, was Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 78). His political theory set the minds of many afire with new ideas and new resolves. His ideas played an important part in preparing the people of France for the great revolution. He famously said in his book Social Contract, "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains." He argued that the laws are binding only when they are supported by the general will of the people. Montesquieu (1689 - 1755), who wrote The Persian Letters and The Spirit of the Laws, also defended liberty. He put forward the theory of separation of powers: The liberty of the individual would be best protected only in a government where the powers of its three organs, viz., legislature, executive and judiciary were separate. It would put in place the necessary checks and balances to prevent any one organ from assuming more power to itself. An Encyclopaedia also came out in Paris about this time and this was full of articles by Diderot and Jean d'Alembert. These philosophers and thinkers, opposed to religious intolerance and political and social privileges, succeeded in provoking large numbers of ordinary people to think and act.
American War of Independence
The American Revolution that broke out in 1776 and ended with the establishment of the American Republic inspired the French Revolution and provided them with a model. The French participation in the American War of Independence supporting the American cause against the British directly affected the French Revolution in two ways: one, it cost the French treasury heavily and the other, the French like Lafayette who participated in the American War of Independence came back with democratic ideals and played an active role in the French Revolution.
Course of the French Revolution
The Fall of Bastille
The critical moment came after the king shut out the commoners and the latter assembled in the Tennis-Court and took an oath that they would not disperse until they found a way out to their problems. The King tried to use force but his own soldiers refused to obey his orders. Louis then intrigued to get foreign regiments to shoot down his own people. This provoked the people to rise in revolt in Paris on 14 July 1789. They stormed the Bastille prison and set free all the prisoners. The fall of the Bastille was the first great turning point in the revolution. 14 July is celebrated as the National Day of France to this day. The subsequent popular risings all over the country emboldened the National Assembly to act swiftly.
National Assembly
This Assembly comprised moderate liberals, who wanted a constitution on the model of England and America. Their leader was Mirabeau. The Assembly was controlled by the middle classes and there was no representation to the peasants and the common masses. This National Assembly abolished serfdom, feudal privileges, including exempting nobles and clergy from taxation, even titles, and feudal courts. The Assembly then passed a Declaration of the Rights of the Man and the Citizen.
Declaration of the Rights of the Man and the Citizen:
This declaration was drafted by Lafayette, Thomas Jefferson and Mirabeau. Based on Natural Law, that asserts that certain rights are inherent by virtue of human nature, the rights of humans were declared universal… and valid at all times and in every place. Inspired by the Enlightenment philosophers, the Declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a major impact on the development of freedom and democracy worldwide. The idea was taken from the American Declaration of Independence. But the American declaration is short, while the French one is long. The Rights of Man include the rights which were supposed to ensure him equality and liberty and happiness.
The Assembly brought about many other reforms. The vast property of the Church was confiscated by the State. A new division of France was made into eighty departments. The old feudal courts were replaced by better law-courts.
March to Versailles
However, the crisis intensified in Paris due to the high price of bread. Riots broke out. The women of Paris marched to Versailles to demand bread from the King. The crowd was in an aggressive mood. The crowd demanded that bread be provided to them. The royal family, including the King, was mobbed. They forced the King and the royal family to go with them to Paris.
Flight to Varennes
The King's position was increasingly shaky. He was not able to reconcile to the legislations passed by the National Assembly. He decided to escape from Paris. Dressing himself as a valet, he escaped along with his family to Varennes, a border town. However, he was recognized there by a postman, arrested by the National Guards and brought back to Paris. From then onwards, he remained in Paris virtually a prisoner.
Girondins and Jacobins
The moderate liberals wanted to keep the King as a limited monarch. They called themselves the party of the Girondins. The hardcore republicans were the Jacobins. In foreign countries especially in England, there were the émigrés, the French nobles who had run away from the Revolution and were continually intriguing against it. All the kings and emperors of Europe, who were frightened by this mass upsurge were ranged against revolutionary France.
Constitution of 1791
In September 1791, the National Assembly framed the first constitution. It provided for a Constitutional monarchy. The Legislature consisted of a single chamber of 750 members. The franchise was limited to those who owned a certain amount of property. The King continued to be the Executive head, but his powers were considerably limited. But the common people who had stormed the Bastille were disillusioned with the developments and found another outlet for their revolutionary energy. This was the Paris Commune. This Commune was in direct touch with the masses. The Commune became the rival of the National Assembly composed of the moderate middle class.
Emigres and the Revolutionary War
In August 1792 ordered an attack on the King's palace. Though the King ordered shooting by his Swiss guards, he was finally deposed and imprisoned. The people of Paris angered by the action of the Swiss guards in shooting and killing many of them hunted down the supporters of monarchy under their leader Marat. In three days, from September 2, about 1500 suspected dissidents were put in prison. After a trial, they were killed and this incident is called "September Massacres." In September also occurred the first victory of the French troops over the invading Austrians and Prussians at the battle of Valmy. This saved the Revolution. On September 21, 1792 the National Convention met.
National Convention and the Reign of Terror, June 1793 to July 1794
The first action of the National Convention was to proclaim the formation of a republic. The trial of Louis XVI was taken up immediately and he was condemned to death. He was guillotined. From the very steps of the guillotine, Danton, a great leader of the Revolution, addressed the assembled crowds and threw an open challenge to other European kings. The new republic of France, through conscription, built up a strong army. The wars particularly against Austria, Prussia and later England engaged Republican France. As a consequence, it was not possible to deal with local social problems. In order to depart totally from the ancient regime, the Convention created a new Republican calendar for France. All references to religion found in the old calendar's name were deleted, and a 10day week followed. In this secular calendar, the twelve months of the year were named after natural elements, while each day was named after a seed, tree, flower, fruit, animal, or tool, replacing the saints'-day names and Christian festivals. (The republican calendar was abandoned by Napoleon on 1 st January One thousand eight hundred and six). The existing system of measures was replaced by a metric system based on the kilogram and the metre. In September 1793 the Convention passed the Law of Suspects, which authorized the arrest of persons suspected of opposing the revolution. A month later twenty-two Girondins' deputies of the Convention were tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal and sentenced to death. Thus began the 'Reign of Terror'. Danton, Herbert and Robespierre emerged as the main leaders of the National Convention. However, they were divided on many issues. Robespierre controlled the Committee of Public Safety and eliminated his rivals. There was a massive peasant revolt in the Vendee partly because of the unwillingness of the peasantry to accept conscriptions. The Vendee revolt was suppressed with great cruelty. There was a strong movement against Christianity. The proponents of this movement proposed the worship of Reason. There was great Festival of Liberty and Reason in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. But Robespierre was conservative in religious matters and neither he nor Danton approved of this movement. Herbert and his supporters who had organized the festival were sent to the guillotine. This caused the first split in the Jacobin party. Danton and others protested against Robespierre for sending too many people to the guillotine. But they were also executed. Surrounded by enemies and totally alienated from the people, Robespierre and his clique chose to intensify the Terror. The Law of Suspects made spreading of false news to divide or instigate the people a punishable crime. Under this Law, large groups of persons were tried together and sentenced. This Terror lasted for forty-six days. On 27 July 1794, the Convention suddenly turned against Robespierre and his supporters. The next day Robespierre was sent to the guillotine. The Reign of Terror ended with the fall of Robespierre. Robespierre, the dictator of the Convention, though he was honest, patriotic and a person of integrity, earned notoriety by sending many of his colleagues to the guillotine. In October 1795 the Convention broke up and a Directory of five members assumed power. The Directory was short lived and was replaced by the Consulate with Napoleon as the first Consul. This Consulate was abolished by Napoleon Bonaparte, who later crowned himself as the Emperor of France. The Revolution thus failed, shattering the dreams of the idealists and the hopes of the poor. Yet the republican idea and principles of liberty, equality and fraternity continued to influence generations to come.
Impact of French Revolution
The French Revolution had many lasting results. It marked the end of the system of absolute monarchy in France. All feudal privileges were abolished and the power of clergy was curbed. The Revolution united the people of different sections and paved the way for the enhanced power of the state. It also led to the growth of feelings of nationalism and the emergence of an assertive middle class. Revolution upheld the theory of people' sovereignty and laid the foundation for the birth of liberal constitutional governments in Europe. Liberty, equality, and fraternity became the watchwords of freedom loving people all over the world and inspired many later day political movements for the establishment of liberal democracy in Europe and elsewhere.
Recap
1. The American War of Independence
The foundation of European colonies in the wake of discovery of America and Britain's triumph over other European powers in bringing 13 colonies under its direct control are described. The burdensome taxation and colonial exploitative policies of England, depriving the colonies of their autonomy and independence are discussed. The proclamation of the colonists 'No Taxation without Representation' prompting England to declare war against the colonies is explained. The import of tea against the protest of colonies triggered a revolt in Boston leading to the outbreak of American War of Independence. The important battles at Lexington, Bunker Hill and York Town between the Colonists and the British forces are highlighted. The Continental Congress Meet in 1774 and the adoption of the Declaration of American Rights, as well as the Second Continental Congress giving the command of the army to George Washington are detailed. The surrender of Lord Cornwallis who commanded the British forces and the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, that recognized the independence of the United States of America, are elaborated.
2. The French Revolution
The outbreak of French Revolution in the wake of summoning of Estates General by Louis XVI is explored The privileged life of the nobility and the clergy is contrasted with the wretched conditions of peasantry, artisans and other sections of commoners who formed the Third Estate. The role of French Philosophers in creating consciousness and inspiring the revolutionaries to revolt against the unpopular monarchy is highlighted. The Tennis Court Oath of members of the Third Estate followed by events like storming of the Bastille and the historic march of women to Versailles are explained. The National Convention turning against Robespierre and sending him to guillotine is related. Setting up of Directory followed by Consulate and grabbing of power by Napoleon Bonaparte who later declared himself the French monarch are summed up. Though the rise of Napoleon marked the end of the revolution, the revolutionary ideals of 'Liberty, Equality and Fraternity' continued to inspire many later political movements and laid the foundation for the emergence of liberal democracy in Europe and elsewhere.
Timeline
5 May 1789 Meeting of the Estates General
17 June 1789 Third Estate becomes the National Assembly
20 June 1789 Tennis Court Oath
9 July 1789 National Assembly becomes the Constituent Assembly
14 July 1789 Storming of the Bastille
27 August 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
5 & 6 October 1789 Paris mob marching to Versailles
20 & 21 June 1790 Flight of the King to Varennes
10 August 1792 Meeting of the National Convention
2 & 3 September 1792 September Massacres
21 January 1793 Execution of Louis XVI
27 July 1794 Execution of Robespierre
Exercise
Exercise 1. Choose the correct answer
1. The first British colony in America was
a. New York b. Philadelphia c. Jamestown d. Amsterdam
2. The pioneer of French Revolution who fought on the side of Washington against the British was
a. Mirabeau b. Lafayette c. Napoleon d. Danton
3. Lafayette, Thomas Jefferson and Mirabeau wrote the
a. Declaration of Independence b. Declaration of Pilnitz c. Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen d. Human Rights Charter
4. The defeat of British at ______ paved the way for the friendship between France and America.
a. Trenton b. Saratoga c. Pennsylvania d. New York
5. ______ was the symbol of "Royal Despotism" in France.
a. Versailles Palace b. Prison of Bastille c. Paris Commune d. Estates General
6. The forces of Austria and Prussia were defeated by the French Revolutionary forces at
a. Verna b. Versailles c. Pilnitz d. Valmy
7. Candide was written by
a. Voltaire b. Rousseau c. Montesquieu d. Danton
8. The moderate liberals who wanted to retain Louis XVI as a limited monarchy were called
a. Girondins b. Jacobins c. Emigres d. Royalists
9. American War of Independence was ended with the Peace of Paris in the year
a. 1776 b. 1779 c. 1781 d. 1783
10. Thomas Paine's famous pamphlet was
a. Common Sense b. Rights of Man c. Bill of Rights d. Abolition of Slavery Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks
1. The Postmaster General of the Postal Department of the government of second Continental Congress was .
2. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on .
3. The Act insisted on repaying the debt in gold or silver.
4. The leader of National Assembly of France was .
5. was guillotined for organizing a Festival of Liberty and Reason.
6. Louis 16 was arrested at with his family when he tried to escape from France.
Exercise 3. Choose the correct statement
1.
(1) The Portuguese were the pioneers of naval expeditions.
(2). New Plymouth was named after the Quaker Penn.
(3). Quakers have the reputation of encouraging wars.
(4). The English changed the name of New Amsterdam to New York.
a. 1 & 2 are correct b. 3 is correct c. 4 is correct d. 1 & 4 are correct
2.
1) The American War of Independence was as much a civil war as a war against the British.
(2). The British forces emerged victorious in York Town.
(3). The nobles in France were supportive of the rising middle class.
(4). The British Parliament repealed the Townshend Act except the tax on paper.
a. 1 & 2 are correct b. 3 is correct c. 4 is correct d. 1 & 4 are correct
3.
Assertion (A): Merchants of Boston boycotted the British goods
Reason (R): The British Finance Minister introduced new duties on imports into American colonies
a. A is correct and R is not the explanation of A b. A is incorrect and R is not the explanation of A c. A is correct and R is the explanation of A d. Both 'A' and 'R' are incorrect
4.
Assertion (A): There was a massive peasant revolt in the Vendee against conscriptions.
Reason (R): The peasants as supporters of the king did not like to fight against him.
a. Both A and R are incorrect b. Both A and R are correct c. A is correct and R is incorrect d. A is incorrect and R is correct Exercise 4. Match the following
| 1. John Winthrop | |
| 2. Turgot | |
| 3. The Spirit of laws | |
| 4. Marie Antoinette | |
| 5. Seven years war | |
| 6. American Independence Day | |
Options: France Finance Minister, July 4, Massachusetts Bay, Louis XVI, Britain and France, Montesquieu
Exercise 5. Answer the following questions briefly
1. Who were Puritans? Why did they leave England?
2. What do you know about the Quakers?
3. Point out the significance of "the Boston Tea Party".
4. Attempt an account of "September Massacres".
5. Explain the composition of "Three Estates of France".
6. Sketch the role of Lafayette in the French Revolution.
7. What was the background for the storming of Bastille Prison?
8. What were the taxes the peasants had to pay in France on the eve of Revolution?
Exercise 6. Answer in detail
1. "Taxation without Representation" led to the outbreak of American War of Independence – Explain
2. Highlight the contribution of French Philosophers to the Revolution of 1789
FUN WITH HISTORY
Student Activities
If any Government becomes bankrupt like the Government of Louis XVI, what measures do you think are required to overcome the crisis.
Student Activities
Attempt a comparative study of American War of Independence and Indian Independence Movement.
Assignment with teacher's guidance
Attempting an account of Bastille prison.
Reading the essence of Les Miserable (a historical novel by Victor Hugo)
REFERENCES
1. George Brown Tindall and David E. Shi, America: A Narrative History, Vol. I, W.W. Norton, New York, 1993.
2. John A. Garraty, A Short History of the American Nation, Harper Collins College Publishers, New York, 1993.
3. James A. Henrietta, et al., America's History, Vol. 1, Worth Publishers, New York, 1997.
4. Jawaharlal Nehru, Glimpses of World History, Penguin, 2004.
5. Chris Harman, The People's History of the World, Orient Longman, 2007.
6. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution, 1789-1848, Vintage Books, New York, 1996.
7. Edward MacNall Burns, World Civilizations, Vol. II, W.W. Norton, 1968.
8. David Thomson, Europe Since Napoleon, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1990.
9. C.D.M. Ketelbey, A History of Modern Times since 1789, OUP, New Delhi, 1997
ICT CORNER
THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS
Procedure
Step 1: Use the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step - 2 Click the game icon to enter the game page
Step-3 Click the Place of States game
Step-4 Drag and put the States in their proper location on the map
URL: https://bensguide.gpo.gov/(or) scan the QR Code
Book-back Exercises — Questions & Answers
Answers generated strictly from the Samacheer Kalvi textbook content. Attempt each question first, then click "Show Answer" to check.
1. Choose the correct answer
1. The first British colony in America was ____
a) New York b) Philadelphia c) Jamestown d) Amsterdam
Answer: c) Jamestown
Explanation: Jamestown was the first British colony in America (1607).
2. The pioneer of French Revolution who fought on the side of Washington against the British was ____
a) Mirabeau b) Lafayette c) Napoleon d) Danton
Answer: b) Lafayette
Explanation: Lafayette, who fought the British on Washington's side through to the conclusive battle at Yorktown in 1781, later during the French Revolution served the French National Guard as its Commander.
3. Lafayette, Thomas Jefferson and Mirabeau wrote the ____
a) Declaration of Independence b) Declaration of Pilnitz c) Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen d) Human Rights Charter
Answer: c) Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
Explanation: Declaration of the Rights of the Man and the Citizen was drafted by Lafayette, Thomas Jefferson and Mirabeau.
4. The defeat of British at ____ paved the way for the friendship between France and America.
a) Trenton b) Saratoga c) Pennsylvania d) New York
Answer: b) Saratoga
Explanation: The British were defeated at Saratoga. This defeat paved the way for an alliance between France and the Americans.
5. ____ was the symbol of "Royal Despotism" in France.
a) Versailles Palace b) Prison of Bastille c) Paris Commune d) Estates General
Answer: a) Versailles Palace
Explanation: Louis XIV and his great palace at Versailles had symbolized royal absolutism and the greatness of France.
6. The forces of Austria and Prussia were defeated by the French Revolutionary forces at ____.
a) Verna b) Versailles c) Pilnitz d) Valmy
Answer: d) Valmy
Explanation: The first victory of the French troops over the invading Austrians and Prussians at the battle of Valmy saved the Revolution.
7. Candide was written by ____.
a) Voltaire b) Rousseau c) Montesquieu d) Danton
Answer: a) Voltaire
Explanation: Voltaire's most famous work was Candide.
8. The moderate liberals who wanted to retain Louis XVI as a limited monarchy were called ____.
a) Girondins b) Jacobins c) Emigres d) Royalists
Answer: a) Girondins
Explanation: The moderate liberals wanted to keep the King as a limited monarch. They called themselves the party of the Girondins.
9. American War of Independence was ended with the Peace of Paris in the year ____.
a) 1776 b) 1779 c) 1781 d) 1783
Answer: d) 1783
Explanation: In 1783, the Peace of Paris was signed. Great Britain agreed to the independence of the United States.
10. Thomas Paine's famous pamphlet was ____.
a) Common Sense b) Rights of Man c) Bill of Rights d) Abolition of Slavery
Answer: a) Common Sense
Explanation: In January 1776, an anonymous pamphlet under the title Common Sense was published. It was authored by Thomas Paine.
(2). Fill in the blanks
1. The Postmaster General of the Postal Department of the government of second Continental Congress was ____.
Answer: Benjamin Franklin
2. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on ____.
Answer: 17 June 1775
3. The ____ Act insisted on repaying the debt in gold or silver.
Answer: Currency
4. The leader of National Assembly of France was ____.
Answer: Mirabeau
5. ____ was guillotined for organizing a Festival of Liberty and Reason.
Answer: Herbert
6. Louis 16 was arrested at ____ with his family when he tried to escape from France.
Answer: Varennes
(3). Choose the correct statement
1. (1) The Portuguese were the pioneers of naval expeditions.
(2). New Plymouth was named after the Quaker Penn.
(3). Quakers have the reputation of encouraging wars.
(4). The English changed the name of New Amsterdam to New York.
a) 1 & 2 are correct b) 3 is correct c) 4 is correct d) 1 & 4 are correct
Answer: d) 1 & 4 are correct
Explanation: The Portuguese and the Spanish were the pioneers in geographical explorations. The Dutch founded a town and called it New Amsterdam. The English later changed the name to New York.
2. (1) The American War of Independence was as much a civil war as a war against the British.
(2). The British forces emerged victorious in York Town.
(3). The nobles in France were supportive of the rising middle class.
(4). The British Parliament repealed the Townshend Act except the tax on paper.
a) 1 & 2 are correct b) 3 is correct c) 4 is correct d) 1 & 4 are correct
Answer: Refer to the chapter text for this answer.
3. Assertion (A): Merchants of Boston boycotted the British goods
Reason (R): The British Finance Minister introduced new duties on imports into American colonies
a) A is correct and R is not the explanation of A b) A is incorrect and R is not the explanation of A c) A is correct and R is the explanation of A d) Both 'A' and 'R' are incorrect
Answer: c) A is correct and R is the explanation of A
Explanation: The British Finance Minister Charles Townshend introduced new duties on imports in 1767. There were widespread protests against the Townshend Acts. Merchants of Boston organized boycott of British goods.
4. Assertion (A): There was a massive peasant revolt in the Vendee against conscriptions.
Reason (R): The peasants as supporters of the king did not like to fight against him.
a) Both A and R are incorrect b) Both A and R are correct c) A is correct and R is incorrect d) A is incorrect and R is correct
Answer: c) A is correct and R is incorrect
Explanation: There was a massive peasant revolt in the Vendee partly because of the unwillingness of the peasantry to accept conscriptions.
(4). Match the following
1. Match the Following
| 1. John Winthrop | - France Finance Minister |
| 2. Turgot | - July 4 |
| 3. The Spirit of laws | - Britain and France |
| 4. Marie Antoinette | - Massachusetts Bay |
| 5. Seven years war | - Louis XVI |
| 6. American Independence Day | - Montesquieu |
Answers: 1-Massachusetts Bay, 2-France Finance Minister, 3-Montesquieu, 4-Louis XVI, 5-Britain and France, 6-July 4
(5). Answer the following questions briefly
1. Who were Puritans? Why did they leave England?
Answer: Reformers who led a religious movement to reform the Church of England dispensing with the teachings and practices of Roman Catholic Church were known as Puritans. The Stuart kings, James I and Charles I, did not tolerate their attempts to reform the Church of England. The persecution of Puritans prompted many to leave England and settle in the colonies.
2. What do you know about the Quakers?
Answer: Quakers were members of a Christian group called the Society of Friends who, while laying emphasis on the Holy Spirit, rejected outward rites and an ordained ministry. George Fox was the founder of the society in England. Quakers have the reputation of actively working for peace and opposing war. Pennsylvania was named after the Quaker Penn.
3. Point out the significance of "the Boston Tea Party".
Answer: In December 1773, a group of men disguised themselves as Native Americans boarded the cargo vessels and threw the tea overboard. Hailed as the Boston Tea Party, this was done publicly before a large sympathetic crowd. It was a challenge which led to war between the rebellious colonies and England.
4. Attempt an account of "September Massacres".
Answer: The people of Paris angered by the action of the Swiss guards in shooting and killing many of them hunted down the supporters of monarchy under their leader Marat. In three days, from September 2, about 1500 suspected dissidents were put in prison. After a trial, they were killed and this incident is called "September Massacres."
5. Explain the composition of "Three Estates of France".
Answer: The Estates General consisted of the representatives of three classes or "estates": the clergy (men and women ordained for religious duties), the nobles and the commons (comprising lawyers, rich merchants, bankers and businessmen and wealthy landowners). The middle class and the peasants together formed the Third Estate.
6. Sketch the role of Lafayette in the French Revolution.
Answer: Lafayette, who fought the British on Washington's side through to the conclusive battle at Yorktown in 1781, later during the French Revolution served the French National Guard as its Commander. He penned the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, with the help of Jefferson, which the National Assembly of France adopted on August 27, 1789.
7. What was the background for the storming of Bastille Prison?
Answer: The critical moment came after the king shut out the commoners and the latter assembled in the Tennis-Court and took an oath that they would not disperse until they found a way out to their problems. The King tried to use force but his own soldiers refused to obey his orders. Louis then intrigued to get foreign regiments to shoot down his own people. This provoked the people to rise in revolt in Paris on 14 July 1789.
8. What were the taxes the peasants had to pay in France on the eve of Revolution?
Answer: The peasants paid taxes to the state such as taille (land tax), gabelle (salt tax), etc., and provided free labour (corvee) for the construction of public roads. They also paid tithe (one tenth of the annual produce or earnings) to the clergy and feudal dues to the nobles.
(6). Answer in detail
1. "Taxation without Representation" led to the outbreak of American War of Independence – Explain
Answer: The Seven Years War of 1756-63 between Britain and France cost the English heavily. The British ministers proposed that the American colonists pay some of the cost of the war through a series of taxes. The Americans did not have representation in the British Parliament. The Sugar Act, Currency Act, Quartering Act, and Stamp Act were imposed. The Townshend Acts introduced new duties on imports. The preamble of the Sugar Act provided the slogan 'No Taxation without representation'. The colonists challenged the right of the British Parliament to tax them against their will. This led to widespread protests, boycotts, and ultimately to the American War of Independence.
2. Highlight the contribution of French Philosophers to the Revolution of 1789
Answer: The French philosophers of the eighteenth century played a crucial role in preparing the minds for revolution. Voltaire, the most famous writer, criticized the Church and wrote Candide. Rousseau wrote Social Contract, saying "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains." He argued that laws are binding only when supported by the general will of people. Montesquieu wrote The Spirit of the Laws and put forward the theory of separation of powers. An Encyclopaedia by Diderot and d'Alembert also spread new ideas. These philosophers succeeded in provoking large numbers of ordinary people to think and act against religious intolerance and political and social privileges.
📝 Summary
- Three great revolutions in the eighteenth century - the American Revolution, French Revolution, and Industrial Revolution - brought striking changes to Western Society, with the American Revolution being the first political revolution.
- European powers, particularly the Portuguese and Spanish, were pioneers in geographical explorations and founding colonies, while the English established their first colony at Jamestown in 1607 and later colonies through Puritan settlements.
- The American War of Independence began when Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, asserting that "all men are created equal" - a revolutionary statement for its time.
- The French Revolution was caused by political, social, economic and intellectual factors, leading to the Tennis Court Oath, Fall of Bastille, and overthrow of monarchy with establishment of the National Assembly.
- The French Revolution resulted in major changes including abolition of feudalism, confiscation of church property, declaration of citizens' rights, execution of Louis XVI, proclamation of the Republic, and eventually the rise and fall of Robespierre's dictatorship.